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Iljoesjin Il-62

https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19720814-0

Narrative:The Interflug flight departed Berlin-Schönefeld at 16:30. Thirteen minutes later as the airplane was climbing through 8900 m, the crew reported elevator problems. The pilot requested an immediate return to the airport. At 16:51 the crew decided to start the fuel dumping procedure in order to decrease the landing weight. Three minutes later an emergency descent was initiated. The situation of the plane worsened as the crew had detected a fire in the rear. At 16:59:25 they issued a Mayday, stating that they had problems controlling their altitude. They also reported a fire on board. The airplane entered an uncontrolled descent during which the tail section failed. The Ilyushin broke up and crashed. |Date:||Monday 14 August 1972| |Time:||17:01| |Type:|| |[Ilyushin Il-62](/asndb/type/IL62) |Owner/operator:||Interflug| |Registration:|| DM-SEA| |MSN:|| 00702| |Year of manufacture:||1970| |Total airframe hrs:||3520 hours| |Engine model:||Kuznetsov NK-8-4| |Fatalities:||Fatalities: 156 / Occupants: 156| |Other fatalities:||0| |Aircraft damage:|| Destroyed, written off| |Category:||Accident| |Location:||Königs Wusterhausen - |[Germany](/asndb/country/D) |Phase:|| En route| |Nature:||Passenger - Non-Scheduled/charter/Air Taxi| |Departure airport:||Berlin-Schönefeld Airport (SXF/EDDB)| |Destination airport:||Bourgas Airport (BOJ/LBBG)| A hot-air tube in the rear of the airplane had contained a leak for some time. During the operation of the plane hot air with temperatures of around 300°C had caused a weakening of the insulation material of electricity wires and the airplane controls. Immediately after takeoff on the ill-fated flight, a short-circuit occurred. Sparks with a temperature of up to 2000°C caused substantial melting and ultimately a fire in the nr. 4 cargo bay which was located in the rear of the plane. The fire weakened the fuselage structure, causing the tail section to fail in-flight. Sources: [Soviet Transports](https://www.airhistory.net/info/soviet.php) Weg und Absturz der Interflug / K-D. Seifert Location Revision history: |Date/time||Contributor||Updates|

Iljoesjin Il-62

https://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/flugzeugabsturz-bei-koenigs-wusterhausen-die-fast-vergessene-katastrophe/20182826.html

Flugzeugabsturz bei Königs Wusterhausen: Die fast vergessene Katastrophe Es war das schlimmste Flugzeugunglück auf deutschem Boden: Am 14. August 1972 starben 156 Menschen. Königs Wusterhausen entging knapp einem Inferno. Der 14. August 1972 war ein heißer Tag. Viele Bewohner der Siedlung "Am Kirchsteig" [in Königs Wusterhausen](/berlin/wie-konigs-wusterhausen-von-der-nahe-zu-berlin-profitiert-4276762.html) hatten es sich auf dem Balkon gemütlich gemacht, saßen beim Kaffee, werkelten im Garten. An die Flugzeuge, die vom elf Kilometer entfernten Flughafen Schönefeld starteten oder dort landeten, hatten sie sich gewöhnt. Doch das "laute, schrille, knatternde Aufheulen der Turbinen", das an diesem Tag gegen 17 Uhr ertönte, war etwas ganz anderes. "Da haben viele automatisch nach oben geblickt, und so sahen sie dann auch schreckliche Bilder: das zerbrechende Flugzeug, Mobiliar und Koffer, die durch die Luft gewirbelt wurden – vor allem aber die Menschen", sagt der 82-jährige Wolfgang Ketelhut. Er stand auf seinem Balkon, als die Maschine der DDR-Luftfahrtgesellschaft Interflug wenige hundert Meter entfernt abstürzte, und rannte sofort los. "Ich habe gehofft, dass man noch helfen könnte", erzählt er. Aber keiner der 156 Menschen an Bord der Iljuschin (IL) 62 hatte überlebt. Und den Anblick, der sich Ketelhut und den anderen Helfern bot, hat niemand von ihnen je vergessen können: Viele Opfer waren völlig verbrannt, verformte Körper steckten in den Wiesen oder hingen in den Bäumen. An der Absturzstelle gibt es einen privaten Gedenkort Der Absturz von Königs Wusterhausen gilt bis heute als [ schlimmste Flugzeugkatastrophe in Deutschland](/berlin/die-flugunfalle-der-vergangenen-jahre-6372382.html). Umso erstaunlicher ist, dass nur wenig daran erinnert. An der Absturzstelle in Königs Wusterhausen fehlte lange jeder Hinweis auf das Geschehen – der kleine Gedenkort, den es dort jetzt gibt, geht auf die private Initiative von Wolfgang Ketelhut und einigen anderen Anwohnern zurück. Dort soll heute der Opfer gedacht werden. Zuvor werden sich einstige Kollegen der ums Leben gekommenen Crew sowie Feuerwehrleute und andere Beteiligte auf dem Waldfriedhof Wildau treffen, am Denkmal für jene 60 Menschen, deren Gebeine man nach dem Absturz nicht mehr eindeutig zuordnen konnte. "Man hat entschieden, sie hier in Wildau beizusetzen, weil auf den Friedhöfen in Königs Wusterhausen kein Platz für ein so großes Grab war", sagt Friedhofsmitarbeiterin Sylvia Poschau. Vor 26 Jahren hat sie hier angefangen. Damals, erzählt sie, hätten noch öfter Blumen am Denkmal gestanden. Mit den Jahren seien es immer weniger geworden. Nie habe sie Angehörige getroffen. "Es kommen interessierte Besucher, die von dem Absturz gehört oder gelesen haben." Ein Brand im Heckgepäckraum führte zum Absturz Auf dem Wildauer Friedhof fand 1972 auch die Gedenkfeier für die Opfer statt. DDR-Ministerpräsident Willi Stoph, der nur wenige Meter vom Denkmal entfernt begraben liegt, soll eine berührende Rede gehalten haben. Danach wurde vorwiegend geschwiegen. Vor allem über die Ursachen der Katastrophe. Zwar hatten DDR-Zeitungen berichtet, dass der Absturz durch einen Brand im Heckgepäckraum der IL 62 ausgelöst worden war. Wie es aber genau dazu kommen konnte, darüber erfuhr die Öffentlichkeit nichts. "Die Ursachen lagen in der Konstruktion und in der Wartung. Beides wurde in der Sowjetunion vorgenommen. Man wollte die Beziehungen zum sozialistischen Bruderland nicht belasten", sagt Jörn Lehweß-Litzmann. Er gehörte als junger Luftfahrtingenieur zur Sachverständigenkommission, die durch die DDR-Regierung zur Untersuchung der Absturzursache einberufen worden war. Auch eine Expertengruppe des Herstellerwerks unter Leitung von Generalskonstrukteur Nowoschilow führte parallel dazu Ermittlungen durch. Da man einen Anschlag ebenso ausschließen konnte wie die gerüchteweise verbreitete These, das Flugzeug sei in seiner eigenen Kerosin-Wolke in Brand geraten, untersuchte das DDR-Expertenteam sorgfältig, wie es zu dem Feuer kommen konnte. "Es fand heraus, dass eine Heißluftleitung unter dem Fußboden des Heckgepäckraumes aufgrund eines Material- oder Montagefehlers undicht geworden war", sagt Jörn Lehweß-Litzmann und beschreibt, was darauf folgte: "Die Heißluftleitung hat über einen längeren Zeitraum 300 Grad Celsius heiße Luft mit hohem Druck auf einen dicht daneben verlegten Kabelraum geblasen. Die nicht brennbare Isolation der Elektroleitungen verkohlte allmählich und platzte letztlich durch die Vibration ab. Das führte zu Kurzschlüssen und Geräteausfällen bereits kurz nach dem Start. Der Pilot der von Schönefeld nach Burgas in Bulgarien fliegenden Maschine bemerkte, dass etwas nicht stimmte. Auf der Höhe von Cottbus meldete er Schwierigkeiten mit dem Stabilisator und kündigte die Rückkehr nach Schönefeld an. Dass es im Heck brannte, konnte er nicht wissen, weil es dort keine Brandmelder gab. Das Feuer führte schließlich zum Zünden von erhitztem Magnesiummaterial der Flugzeugkonstruktion. Ein Kurzschlusslichtbogen zerstörte zunächst die Höhensteuerung und schweißte kurz darauf das gesamte Heck ab." Zum Untersuchungsbericht der DDR-Sachverständigenkommission, in dem nicht nur die Ursachen benannt, sondern auch Vorschläge zu entsprechenden Änderungen bei Konstruktion und Wartung gemacht wurden, hat sich die sowjetische Regierung nie geäußert. Generalkonstrukteur Nowoschilow teilte dem DDR-Verkehrsministerium fast ein Jahr nach dem Absturz mit, dass er dem Untersuchungsbericht nicht zustimmen könne, erzählt Jörn Lehweß-Litzmann. Die Ursache wurde in der DDR verschwiegen - aus Rücksicht auf Moskau Alle darin geforderten Maßnahmen und Änderungen wurden jedoch vom Herstellerwerk kommentarlos akzeptiert und in den neu gelieferten Flugzeugen umgesetzt. Auch deshalb empfahl der Leiter der DDR-Untersuchungskommission, die Sache auf sich beruhen zu lassen und keine weitere Pressemitteilung zu veröffentlichen. Erich Honecker segnete die Empfehlung im Dezember 1973 mit der Bemerkung "einverstanden" ab. Erst nach dem Mauerfall wurden Akten gesichtet, Filme gedreht und Zeitungsartikel veröffentlicht. 2012 fand erstmals eine Gedenkfeier statt. Sie sollte eigentlich erst zum 50 Jahrestag des Absturzes wiederholt werden, sagt Wolfgang Ketelhut, "aber viele unmittelbar Betroffene sind in die Jahre gekommen und fürchteten, ihn nicht mehr zu erleben". Zu diesen "unmittelbar Betroffenen" gehören Augenzeugen, Beteiligte an der Aufarbeitung der Katastrophe wie Jörn Lehweß-Litzmann sowie ehemalige Kollegen der acht Besatzungsmitglieder. Angehörige der Passagiere waren schon vor fünf Jahren nicht dabei. "Vielleicht liegt es daran, dass die meisten aus Sachsen waren und nichts von den Gedenkveranstaltungen wissen", sagt Jörn Lehweß-Litzmann. "Ich finde es schade – genau wie die Tatsache, dass dieses schwerwiegende Ereignis in den betroffenen Städten, Heimatvereinen, Luftfahrtunternehmen der Region und den politischen Organisationen nicht die gebührende Aufmerksamkeit erhält. Es soll ja auch Mahnung sein, alles Menschenmögliche zu tun, dass sich solche Katastrophen nicht wiederholen." Schließlich habe der Absturz nicht nur 156 Menschen das Leben gekostet, sondern auch das Leben vieler anderer nachhaltig geprägt. Manche Feuerwehrleute träumen heute noch vom Trümmerfeld, tragen die Bilder der Opfer in sich. Seelsorger oder Ähnliches gab es damals noch nicht – sehr wohl aber viele Schaulustige und Leichenfledderer, die nicht davor zurückschreckten, die Toten zu bestehlen. Auch das Tagebuch eines Schulmädchens fand sich in den Trümmern "Bestimmte Dinge kriegt man einfach nicht mehr aus dem Kopf", sagt Wolfgang Ketelhut. Er spricht von einem Tagebuch, das er in den Trümmern fand. Ein Schulmädchen hatte mit kindlicher Schrift im Flugzeug angefangen, ein Urlaubstagebuch zu führen, voller Vorfreude und Neugier aufs Schwarze Meer. Fast noch wichtiger ist den Organisatoren des Gedenkens aber die Feststellung, dass die Crew um den erfahrenen Flugkapitän Heinz Pfaff bis etwa eine Minute vor Abriss des Hecks nicht erkennen konnte, welche Gefahr drohte. Sie habe keine Chance gehabt, den Absturz abzuwenden, und keinen Fehler gemacht – im Gegenteil. Weil sie wegen des Ausfalls der Höhensteuerung den Triebwerksschub in der letzten Minute noch einmal erhöhte, seien die großen Flugzeugteile erst auf der freien Fläche hinter dem Wohngebiet aufgeschlagen. So wurden nur einige Häuser durch herabfallende Flugzeugteile leicht beschädigt und der Bahnhof verschont, wo zu diesem Zeitpunkt zwei vollbesetzte Züge standen. Die Steigerung des Triebwerksschubes, die Anwohner als "das laute, schrille, knatternde Aufheulen der Turbinen"wahrnahmen, hat möglicherweise vielen Menschen am Boden das Leben gerettet. - showPaywall: - false - isSubscriber: - false - isPaid: - showPaywallPiano: - false

Iljoesjin Il-62

https://www.aerotelegraph.com/die-tragoedie-von-koenigs-wusterhausen

Absturz einer Il-62 von Interflug Die Tragödie von Königs Wusterhausen Am 14. August 1972 stürzte eine Maschine der DDR-Airline Interflug in Brandenburg ab. Alle 156 Personen an Bord starben. Es war die schwerste Luftfahrtkatastrophe auf deutschem Boden. Eine Iljuschin Il-62 von Interflug: Die Unglücksmaschine war erst zwei Jahre vor dem Absturz als erste Il-62 in den Dienst von Interflug gestellt worden. Eine Iljuschin Il-62 von Interflug: Die Unglücksmaschine war erst zwei Jahre vor dem Absturz als erste Il-62 in den Dienst von Interflug gestellt worden. Der 14. August 1972 war ein schwüler Sommertag. In der DDR waren Sommerferien, 148 Menschen wollten mit Interflug in den Badeurlaub nach Bulgarien fliegen. Doch es kam anders: Kurz nach dem Start in Berlin bemerkte die Besatzung der Iljuschin Il-62 Probleme mit der Trimmung des Höhenleitwerks. Nach Absprache mit der Flugsicherung kehrte die Maschine um. Doch im Sinkflug löste sich das Heck mit Höhen- und Seitenleitwerk vom Flugzeug. Die Maschine stürzte zwischen Königs Wusterhausen und dem Ortsteil Neue Mühle in einem Waldstück ab. Alle 156 Menschen an Bord, darunter acht Crewmitglieder, starben. Starke Verbrennungen Am Unglücksort bot sich den Rettungskräften ein Bild des Schreckens: Die meisten Toten befanden sich im Rumpf des Flugzeuges und waren bis zur Unkenntlichkeit verbrannt. Andere waren aus dem Flugzeug herausgeschleudert worden, erinnern sich Augenzeugen. Die Identifizierung war für die Rechtsmediziner schwierig: «Für eine so große Zahl von Leichen und Leichenteilen wie nach dem Flugzeugabsturz wie bei Königs Wusterhausen fehlten spezielle Transportfahrzeuge, ebenso geeignete Räume für die Lagerung mit Licht, Belüftung, Kühlung und wenigstens minimalen hygienischen Verhältnissen», berichtete Gunter Geserick, Ex-Chef des Gerichtsmedizinischen Instituts der Charité, in dem Buch «Endstation Tod». Die Angehörigen erfuhren von alledem damals nur sehr wenig. «Der Staat hat uns nie eine Erklärung gegeben», schildern Angehörige in der Dokumentation «Der Todesflug der Il 62» vom Mitteldeutschen Rundfunk MDR. Dabei hatten Experten die Ursache der Katastrophe schnell gefunden: Ein Konstruktionsfehler hatte dazu geführt, dass es im Heck zu einem Kurzschluss kam. Das leicht entzündliche Enteisungsmittel dort ging in Flammen auf, doch die Besatzung merkte den Brand nicht, weil es im Heckteil keine Brandmelder gab. Das Heckteil löste sich schließlich zusammen mit dem Höhenleitwerk vom Rumpf, die Maschine stürzte aus mehreren Hundert Metern Höhe ab. Ost-Berlin wollte keinen Ärger Doch das drang nicht an die Öffentlichkeit. Die DDR-Führung wollte sich nicht mit den Genossen aus der Sowjetunion anlegen, die die Maschine konstruiert hatten. Allerdings wurden infolge der Erkenntnisse die Maschinen technisch verändert: Brandmelder wurden auch im Heck eingebaut, ebenso wie ein Sichtfenster. Zudem wurden zusätzliche Wartungen eingeführt. In der DDR kam das Gerücht auf, die Maschine sei beim Durchfliegen einer selbst verursachten Treibstoffwolke explodiert. Schließlich hatte die Maschine Kerosin abgelassen, bevor sie in Richtung Berlin zurückflog, um eine Überlastung zu vermeiden. Erst mit dem Fall der Mauer kam schließlich die wahre Ursache der Katastrophe ans Licht.

Mitch McConnell

https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2019/05/09/uncovered-steel-dossier-authors-admission-makes-the-fbis-spy-warrant-against-t-n2546078

With Attorney General William Barr at the helm, there's no doubt that he will investigate allegations of wrongdoing concerning whatever Obama's DOJ was up to during the 2016 election with regards to spying on the Trump campaign. Sorry, sorry—covertly placing the campaign under surveillance whilst also using informants to infiltrate the campaign under false pretense with the goal of collecting information for the FBI (or CIA), but don't call that spying, right? I could not roll my eyes hard enough at the folks trying to say that this isn't such an operation. Yeah, [ looking at you ](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2019/05/08/former-obama-spy-czar-yeah-what-happened-to-the-trump-campaign-fits-definition-ofspying-n2546019)James Comey and FBI Director Chris Wray. Even Obama's former czar, former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, said what the Obama administration did fit the dictionary definition of spying. And with [The New York Times story](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2019/05/03/sorry-democrats-it-looks-like-the-obama-doj-was-spying-on-the-trump-campaign-n2545762) about some woman named Azra Turk, if that's her real name, being sent to oversee the spy operation involving informant Stefan Halper, who tried to infiltrate the campaign, that's pretty much an admission that Spygate is grounded in reality, not psycho-babble talk—the latter of which was the media's reaction to all of this. Once again, Donald Trump turned out to be right. Turk was reportedly acting as a "honeypot" towards Trump official George Papadopoulos, who had no issue with the Times piece other than noting that he felt Turk was CIA, not FBI. Ms. Turk also posed as a research assistant and not a government investigator. Why all the leaks now? Well, again, Barr is AG. He's already looking at whether the Steele Dossier was part of a Russian misinformation campaign. You don't think he'll also look into whether this document was used to obtain a spy warrant against an American citizen? You bet. And we have a DOJ inspector general report on alleged FISA abuses that's about to drop in June. It's said to be " [scorching](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2019/05/02/this-is-what-trump-told-sebastian-gorka-two-years-ago-about-this-whole-russia-collusion-myth-n2545769)" towards the Obama administration, so better get ahead of all of this to minimize the impact towards Democrats, right? John Solomon of The Hill has been closely covering the FBI's warrant to spy on Carter Page, who briefly served as a foreign policy adviser for the Trump campaign. It's been alleged that the FBI used the Trump dossier (aka Steele dossier), which was a Democrat-funded opposition research project aimed at finding dirt on Donald Trump using a former MI6 spy, Christopher Steele, who [used sources within the Kremlin ](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2017/10/25/former-bush-aide-it-sure-looks-like-hillary-clintons-campaign-colluded-with-the-n2400143)to compile this document. The DNC and the Clinton campaign backed this effort. If anything, going by the liberal media's rules on the Russian collusion myth, there was Clinton-DNC-Russia collusion, but that's for another time. The document is largely unverified. It's most salacious parts are probably garbage. In fact, the entire document is total trash, especially with the release of the report by Special Counsel Robert Mueller who investigated Trump-Russia collusion for two years and found zero evidence to back up this Democrat-media complex manufactured claim. I mean a great many of us knew this when after months of these allegations were spewed into the news cycle and no evidence was found, the writing was on the wall. If a conspiracy of this magnitude were true, there would have been mountains of evidence. There was none. There was nothing but a lot of hot air from the liberal media. Recommended So, if unverified, was this used as the main piece of evidence to secure a FISA spy warrant on Page in 2016, who by the way, was never charged with a crime throughout this whole circus. That FISA warrant was then reauthorized three times up until 2017. The DOJ IG Michael Horowitz, an Obama appointee, is asking the FBI why did [they cite Steele as a credible source](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2019/05/08/uh-oh-doj-ig-is-asking-why-the-fbi-they-kept-citing-christopher-steele-as-credib-n2546020) when the dossier was total garbage. Maybe because it [wasn't verified](https://thehill.com/opinion/white-house/420408-comeys-confession-dossier-not-verified-before-or-after-fisa-warrant), which we got whiff of when fired Deputy FBI Director Andrew McCabe [refused to answer ](https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/years-later-trump-dossier-still-frustrates-verification-efforts)whether the bureau had vetted the document. And it's not like there was no one at the DOJ who raised the [issue about the document's integrity ](https://thehill.com/opinion/white-house/425739-fisa-shocker-doj-official-warned-steele-dossier-was-connected-to-clinton)either. Now, he has [defended using the dossier ](https://dailycaller.com/2019/03/03/mccabe-defends-dossier-fbi-informant/)for his book tour of course. To make things even shadier, DNC lawyers [met with the FBI ](https://thehill.com/hilltv/rising/409817-russia-collusion-bombshell-dnc-lawyers-met-with-fbi-on-dossier-before)prior to that FISA warrant being issued against Carter Page. And now, uncovered in the drawers of the State Department, we find that Steele admitted that he wanted to spread the contents of the dossier to impact the 2016 election (via [The Hill](https://thehill.com/opinion/white-house/442592-steeles-stunning-pre-fisa-confession-informant-needed-to-air-trump-dirt)): [Donald Trump]'s campaign, it sat buried for more than 2 1/2 years in the files of a high-ranking State Department official. Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Kathleen Kavalec's [written account]of her Oct. 11, 2016, meeting with FBI informant Christopher Steele shows the [Hillary Clinton]campaign-funded British intelligence operative admitted that his research was political and facing an Election Day deadline. And that confession occurred 10 days before the FBI used Steele's now-discredited dossier to justify securing a Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA warrant to surveil former Trump campaign adviser Carter Page and the campaign's ties to Russia. Steele's client "is keen to see this information come to light prior to November 8," the date of the 2016 election, Kavalec wrote in a typed summary of her meeting with Steele and Tatyana Duran, a colleague from Steele's Orbis Security firm. The memos were unearthed a few days ago through open-records litigation by the conservative group Citizens United. Kavalec's notes do not appear to have been provided to the House Intelligence Committee during its Russia probe, according to former Chairman Devin Nunes (R-Calif.). "They tried to hide a lot of documents from us during our investigation, and it usually turns out there's a reason for it," Nunes told me. Senate and House Judiciary investigators told me they did not know about them, even though they investigated Steele's behavior in 2017-18. Yeah, you can see why Comey and company are nervous. Also, it seems the State Department is going to be dragged into this. The document was not verified. And now, with Turk being alleged to be CIA, will Obama CIA Director John Brennan be dragged back to the Hill for questions about this overall spygate fiasco? Alas, the deep state has reared its ugly head. We all knew it existed, but this is quite the development. It shows that there was an apparent politically motivated anti-Trump operation being carried out within the DOJ and larger Intelligence Community. And we're all going to just sit here and think that Obama had no clue what was going on here? Please. The first inklings of the dossier being weaponized were laid out in the text messages between fired FBI Agent Peter Strzok and his mistress, bureau lawyer Lisa Page. Page has since resigned from the FBI. Page and Strzok exchanged tens of thousands of texts during their affair, most of which were anti-Trump. It embarrassed the FBI and brought legitimate allegations of bias, especially since Strzok was once a top counterintelligence agent who reportedly signed off on the probe that eventually became the Mueller investigation after James Comey was fired in May of 2017. He was also a point person in the Clinton email investigation, where the two lamented that the FBI might be going [too hard on Clinton](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2018/01/26/unreal-fbi-lovebirds-strzok-and-page-worried-about-being-too-tough-on-hillary-clinton-n2440081). Oh, and Strzok said that they [were going to stop Trump](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/guybenson/2018/06/14/senior-fbi-agents-text-well-stop-donald-trump-from-becoming-president-n2490745), whatever that means. That one is bad enough, but the one where Strzok mentions [an "insurance policy" ](https://townhall.com/tipsheet/mattvespa/2017/12/29/yeah-the-trump-dossier-could-be-the-fbis-insurance-plan-n2427659)concerning their meeting with "Andy" (McCabe) is where many thought they were referring to the dossier. Drip. Drip. Drip. June is coming. *** Editor's Note: Apologies, folks. I meant to say drawers of the State Dept., not the DOJ. My mistake. The post has been updated to reflect the changes.

Chuck Grassley

https://www.kcrg.com/content/news/Grassley-set-to-become-Senate-Pro-Tempore-500500491.html

Grassley set to become Senate pro tempore The Senate Republican majority of the upcoming 116th Congress has unanimously nominated Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley to be Senate pro tempore. The position has historically been given to the most senior member of the majority party in the upper chamber of Congress. Once elected to the position by the full Senate on January 3, 2019, Grassley will be third in the line of presidential succession following the Vice President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. Representing Iowa, Grassley has been a part of the U.S. Senate for 38 years. "The President pro tempore is one of a handful of offices specifically named by the Founders in the Constitution," Grassley said. "I may only be three heartbeats away from the Oval Office, but my heart is and always will be in Iowa and here in the U.S. Senate." Grassley said he already has some goals in mind for when he becomes Senate pro tempore. "I'll work to see that we uphold the Senate as a check on the executive and judicial branches of government, including our constitutional authority to provide advice and consent," Grassley said.

Jakub Hrůša

http://kultura.ihned.cz/c1-25821030-novy-sefdirigent-prazske-komorni-filharmonie-nejsem-revolucionar

"Nejsem a nikdy asi ani nebudu "revolucionářem", který by své kvality a myšlenky chtěl demonstrovat převratnými, omračujícími činy," říká sedmadvacetiletý hudebník Jakub Hrůša. Jeden z nejperspektivnějších českých dirigentů opouští šéfdirigentské místo u Filharmonie Bohuslava Martinů ve Zlíně a od příští sezony nastupuje na stejný post u Pražské komorní filharmonie (PKF). Žák zakladatele tohoto orchestru, Jiřího Bělohlávka, chce u PKF podržet vše dobré, na co lze navázat. "A toho je v PKF mnoho," tvrdí. HN: Ve Zlíně končíte. Podařilo se vám s tamní filharmonií naplnit všechna předsevzetí? Podařilo se snad využít veškerý pozitivní potenciál, který v orchestru už v okamžiku mého příchodu dřímal, dříve jen možná filharmonikům nebyla dána plná šance jej proměnit. Část hudebníků byla od počátku mé činnosti ve Zlíně vysloveně nažhavena na intenzivní práci, což je pro dirigenta vždy velký dar. Museli jsme ale strhnout i ty ostatní, na kterých byla za léta, kdy se zřejmě nepracovalo s tak velkým "tahem na branku", patrná určitá letargie. Byl bych jistě velký idealista, kdybych si myslel, že mi to vyšlo napříč celým tělesem, ale domnívám se, že se společné dobré dílo podařilo alespoň do té míry, že i ti, kteří třeba ve vnitřním nasazení nejsou v "první linii", to na pódiu nedají znát. Celek pak může působit dobře. HN: Co nového chcete vnést do PKF? Jiří Bělohlávek do orchestru zasel především důslednou dennodenní práci s až fanatickým zanícením ke kvalitě detailu. Ta je klíčem k uměleckému úspěchu ansámblu. Můj předchůdce Kaspar Zehnder pak vnesl do orchestru jistou svěžest v podobě odvážnějších dramaturgických kroků. Na to bychom svým způsobem chtěli také navázat, a to i přesto, že jeho pořady šly leckdy snad až trochu necitlivě cestou programového experimentování, lehkého "zkoušení", co všechno je možné abonentům a jiným posluchačům předložit. Chtěl bych se pokusit o trochu větší ohled k přirozenosti předpokládaného přání našeho abonenta. Budu se také muset zabývat otázkou co největší stabilizace faktického života i pracovní a lidské atmosféry tělesa. PKF je obecně prospěšnou společností, a tak se neustále potýká s nejrůznějšími ekonomickými, a tím pádem i s tím spojenými personálními a existenčními otázkami. Toužím po tom, abych pomohl svým hudebním kolegům zajistit pracovní klid a blahodárnou harmonii. Další mé předsevzetí spočívá v rozšíření kontaktů se zahraničními pořadateli a hostujícími umělci. V tomto ohledu hodláme mít větší kuráž než dosud. HN: Nebude vám v komorním orchestru scházet plný zvuk velkého symfonického tělesa? V koncepční práci s PKF musí být "komořina" jako princip základním rozměrem. Jako dirigentovi mi to však naprosto nevadí, protože při nejrůznějších, především zahraničních, hostováních, kterých mám množství, většinou řídím velká symfonická tělesa. Ostatně ten fakt komorní práce nevnímám jako handicap, ale naopak jako velkou šanci vlastního uměleckého růstu, jako výzvu dělat ryzí práci, která mnohdy u velkých těles není stoprocentně možná. U komorních orchestrů, pokud je jejich činnost dobře definována, se přímo nabízí možnost pilovat i ty nejmenší detaily. HN: PKF nahrála i díla raných romantiků, třeba Mendelssohnovy symfonie. Nezasloužili by si takoví skladatelé početnější orchestr? S tím se dá v mnoha ohledech souhlasit, ovšem komornější provedení staví tato díla zase do jiného světla právě zřetelem k detailu a docilováním větší transparentnosti, ryzosti. A lehce polemicky dodávám otázku, jestli u obliby "masivnějších" pojetí nejde jen o posluchačskou tradici či pohodlnost vnímání, manko v ochotě slyšet tyto skladby z jiného úhlu - ve větším svitu, menším zaobalení. ZE ZLÍNA DO PRAHY. Jakub Hrůša přechází z postu šéfdirigenta velkého orchestru, zlínské filharmonie, k menšímu tělesu - Pražské komorní filharmonii: Komorní práci nevnímám jako handicap, ale naopak jako velkou šanci, říká. /Od našeho spolupracovníka/ Tento článek máteje zdarma. Když si předplatíte HN, budete moci číst všechny naše články nejen na vašem aktuálním připojení. Vaše předplatné brzy skončí. Předplaťte si HN a můžete i nadále číst všechny naše články. Nyní první 2 měsíce jen za 40 Kč. - Veškerý obsah HN.cz - Možnost kdykoliv zrušit - Odemykejte obsah pro přátele - Ukládejte si články na později - Všechny články v audioverzi + playlist

Jakub Hrůša

https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/feb/29/classicalmusicandopera.shopping5

Dvořák's two Serenades make an obvious CD pairing, and here they are supplemented by the short Meditation On an Old Czech Hymn, St Wenceslas, by his son-in-law Josef Suk. It all makes a pleasantly undemanding , if at times slightly soporific, sequence. For there's just a hint, in the performance of the Serenade for Strings particularly, of too much familiarity with music that all Czech instrumentalists must know from their school days. Tempi are consistently on the leisurely side, as if luxuriating in the music's tunefulness was all that mattered, and there are several moments when a bit more urgency from the conductor, Jakub Hrusa, would have sharpened the focus significantly. And while all the solo playing in the Serenade for Wind is a delight - full of personality and distinctive colours - the ensemble playing has a strangely tubby sound, as if the balance had been allowed to fend for itself. Unless the Czech provenance of the performances is a bonus, there are better accounts of both these major works to be found elsewhere. (Supraphon)

Jakub Hrůša

http://www.nordbayern.de/region/bamberg/neuer-chefdirigent-der-bamberger-symphoniker-jakub-hrusa-1.4637759

Neuer Chefdirigent der Bamberger Symphoniker: Jakub Hrusa7.9.2015, 15:31 Uhr Wie Bayerns Kunstminister Dr. Ludwig Spenle und der Intendant der Bayerischen Staatsphilharmonie Marcus R. Axt an diesem Montag bekannt gaben, wird Jakub Hrusa das Erbe des vorherigen Chefdirigenten Jonathan Nott antreten. Der 34-Jährige gebürtige Tscheche übernimmt ab Sommer 2016 den Taktstock. Bereits jetzt kann er auf eine beeindruckende Karriere zurückblicken: So ist er ständiger Gastdirigent der Tschechischen Philharmonie, Erster Gastdirigent des Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra und war von 2009 bis 2015 Chefdirigent der Prag Philharmonia. Auch in Bamberg ist er kein Unbekannter, denn er war mehrmals Gastdirigent bei den Bamberger Symphonikern. "Als er am Pult stand, haben wir ein Kribbeln gespürt", sagte Orchestervorstand Robert Cürlis. Auch der Intendant Marcus Axt steht hinter dem Tschechen: "Die fünf Konzerte, in denen er unser Orchester bisher leitete, haben eindrucksvoll gezeigt, dass er aus dem gemeinsamen Musizieren spontan außergewöhnliche Ereignisse gestalten kann." So lag es durchaus nahe, dass Hrusa in die engere Auswahl für die Nott-Nachfolge kam und schließlich vom Stiftungsrat offiziell zum Chefdirigenten ernannt wurde. Spaenle nannte dies eine "zentrale Personalentscheidung für die weitere Entwicklung der Bamberger Symphoniker." Gemeinsame tschechische Wurzeln Hrusa wolle vor allem auf zeitgenössische Musik "mit einem tschechischen Akzent" setzen, sagt er von sich selbst. "Mit den Bamberger Symphonikern kann jedes noch so kleine musikalische Detail zu einem Wunder werden, und jedes Konzert verwandelt den, der es hört." Mit Blick auf die Geschichte der Bamberger Symphoniker, deren Musiker in der Nachkriegszeit von Prag nach Bamberg kamen, sagte Hrusa: "Da die Wurzeln des Orchesters in Prag liegen, atmen wir gewissermaßen die gleiche musikalische Luft, teilen den gleichen kulturellen Hintergrund und sind uns künstlerisch und historisch sehr nah." Er habe keine Sekunde gezögert, das Angebot in Bamberg anzunehmen. Für ihn gehe ein Lebenstraum in Erfüllung. Die Bayerische Staatsphilharmonie feiert im März 2016 bereits sein 70-jähriges Bestehen. Bis 2021 darf Hrusa sein Können nun unter Beweis stellen. Seine ersten Konzerte mit den Bamberger Symphonikern finden in dieser Saison vom 12. bis 15. November in Bayreuth, Schweifurt und Bamberg statt. Verwandte Themen Keine Kommentare Um selbst einen Kommentar abgeben zu können, müssen Sie sich [einloggen](javascript:loginSlide('ref_comments');) oder sich vorher [registrieren](#). 0/1000 Zeichen

Jakub Hrůša

http://www.philharmonia.co.uk/news/article/31/the_philharmonia_announces_two_principal_guest_conductors_jakub_hrusa_and_santtu-matias_rouvali

Browse Philharmonia concerts and events in London, across the UK and internationally 24/25 London Season Now on sale - discover our 2024/25 season 24/25 Bedford Season We return for five concerts at our longest standing residency 24/25 Leicester Season Join us for five wonderful concerts at De Montfort Hall 24/25 Canterbury Season We return to our Canterbury residency for five glorious concerts 24/25 Basingstoke Season Beloved favourites and rare masterpieces: our season in Basingstoke Nordic Series Join us for Nordic Soundscapes, our new series of concerts. Founded in 1945, the Philharmonia is a world-class symphony orchestra for the 21st century Our players Meet our players, 80 outstanding musicians who come from all over the world Titled artists Meet the conductors and composers who shape our programme and performances About us Read about our current work in the Philharmonia's official 2023/24 season biography Our history This article, written to mark our 70th anniversary in 2015, reflects on the Philharmonia's history Hire the Philharmonia Find out about our wide range of projects with commercial partners Contact & Management All contacts for the Philharmonia's administration, and governance information Based in London at Southbank Centre's Royal Festival Hall, the Philharmonia creates thrilling performances for a global audience Live on stage Concerts, in many different formats, are at the heart of what we do Digital & Immersive We use technology to connect with new audiences beyond the concert hall Learning & Engagement We inspire, excite, empower and engage a broad range of participants In the studio Founded as a recording orchestra, today we record music for games and movies Artist in Residence Every season, we appoint an Artist in Residence to collaborate with our musicians. Talent Development We nurture and showcase the next generation of artistic talent As a registered charity, the Philharmonia relies on funding from a wide range of sources Become a Friend Deepen your relationship with the Philharmonia from as little as £5 per month Philanthropy There are many ways that you can donate to help support the Philharmonia's programme American Patrons The American Patrons of the Philharmonia Foundation support our work across the United States Companies We are proud to work in partnership with a wide range of businesses across the world Philharmonia in Bedford Trust Support us to secure the future of our residency at Bedford Corn Exchange in perpetuity Thank you to our supporters We are grateful to our Philharmonia family of supporters whose contributions help us make extraordinary music accessible to everyone Blog Ahead of this year's Three Choirs Festival in Worcester, the Philharmonia caught up with mezzo-soprano Beth Taylor, a Glasgow native, to discuss the upcoming performance. Blog, News The Philharmonia Orchestra announces Vidya Patel as its Artist in Residence for the 2024/25 season. Sol Gabetta speaks to us ahead of our final concert in the 2023/24 season. Isabelle Faust answers our questions on Beethoven's Violin Concerto, conductor Philippe Herreweghe, and more ahead of our concert on Sunday 2 June. We are delighted to have received confirmation today that His Majesty King Charles III has retained his Patronage of the Philharmonia Orchestra We speak to conductor Alessandro Crudele ahead of our 2023/24 season finale in Bedford. Find out more about Soumik Datta's Borderlands, the culmination of his year as the Philharmonia's Artist in Residence. Alexandre Kantorow answers our questions ahead of his performance of Liszt's Second Piano Concerto. News Get to know Sunwook Kim who answers our questions ahead of his performance with the Philharmonia. Get to know maestro Masaaki Suzuki who answers our questions ahead of his tour with the Philharmonia. Bruce Liu answers our questions ahead of his concerts with Santtu and the Philharmonia. Steven Isserlis chats to us ahead of the concert on 24 March. The Philharmonia joins the Big Give's latest matched funding campaign in support of Orchestra Unwrapped, so your donation can go twice as far. We spoke to Eun Sun Kim about conducting her upcoming concert with us, and what's it like to conduct two soloists at the same time. We use cookies to ensure we give you the best experience of our website. Learn more.

Jakub Hrůša

http://www.stmwk.bayern.de/pressemitteilung/11328/nr-053-vom-19-06-2018.html

Pressemitteilung Nr. 053 vom 19.06.2018 Kunstministerin Prof. Dr. med. Marion Kiechle: "Bamberger Symphoniker unter Hrůšas Leitung auch in Zukunft Ton angebend" - Jakub Hrůša wird Bamberger Symphoniker bis 2026 kontinuierlich dirigieren Chefdirigent Jakub Hrůša verlängert um weitere fünf Spielzeiten bei Bamberger Symphonikern MÜNCHEN. Der Chefdirigent der Bamberger Symphoniker Jakub Hrůša hat heute in München einen Vertrag für weitere fünf Spielzeiten unterschrieben. Das gab Bayerns Kunstministerin Prof. Dr. med. Marion Kiechle heute bekannt: "Ich freue mich, dass Jakub Hrůša bereits heute seinen Vertrag verlängert hat und auch in den Spielzeiten 2021 bis 2026 Chefdirigent der Bamberger Symphoniker bleibt. Mit ihm hat die Bayerische Staatsphilharmonie ihren künstlerischen Weg enorm erfolgreich fortgesetzt und zählt zu den international bedeutsamsten Symphonieorchestern Bayerns. Die jüngste Auszeichnung für das beste deutschsprachige Konzertprogramm des Jahres der Spielzeit 2017/18 belegt die herausragende Qualität ebenfalls eindrucksvoll. Ich bin mir sicher, dass die Bamberger Symphoniker unter seiner Leitung auch in Zukunft Ton angebend sein werden." Der Tscheche Jakub Hrůša übernahm im Herbst 2016 die Nachfolge von Jonathan Nott als Chefdirigent der Bamberger Symphoniker. Chefdirigent Jakub Hrůša sagte bei der Vertragsunterzeichnung: "In den beiden zurückliegenden Jahren habe ich die Erfahrung gemacht, dass Bamberg ein Ort auf dieser Welt ist, an dem die Dinge besser funktionieren, als man es sich erträumen kann. Es ist wirklich ein außergewöhnlicher Ort, ein Ort der Inspiration, der Konzentration und der Freude - und der zentrale Grund ist für mich natürlich sein Orchester: die Bamberger Symphoniker. Als Chefdirigent habe ich seit 2016 das Privileg, gemeinsam mit diesem herrlichen Orchester durch die Schönheiten eines breiten und abwechslungsreichen Repertoires reisen zu dürfen, sowohl ,zu Hause' in Bamberg und in Bayern als auch auf Tourneen und bei Aufnahmen. Die Gewissheit, dass diese zutiefst bedeutsame Reise bis 2026 fortgesetzt werden kann, macht mich noch einmal glücklicher. Ich wollte immer dort sein, wo man sich unter den richtigen Bedingungen kontinuierlich entwickeln kann. Genau dies ist meine Erfahrung bei den Bamberger Symphonikern, einer Gemeinschaft von großartigen Musikern und einem engagierten Management, in der wir alle wachsen und uns in jeder Sekunde weiterentwickeln. Ich freue mich darauf, mein musikalisches Heimatgefühl in Bamberg zu vertiefen!" Marcus Rudolf Axt, Stiftungsvorstand und Intendant der Bamberger Symphoniker betonte: "Gleich mit seinem Debüt im Jahr 2014 hat sich Jakub Hrůša in die Herzen der Bamberger Symphoniker und des Publikums dirigiert. Seitdem gelingt es ihm in jedem Konzert, das Orchester zu Höchstleistungen zu inspirieren. Als fünftem Chefdirigent in der 75jährigen Orchestergeschichte liegt Jakub Hrůša die kontinuierliche Pflege der Klangtradition genauso am Herzen wie dem Orchester. Wir alle sind daher überglücklich, dass diese kongeniale Partnerschaft mit unseren Musikerinnen und Musikern nun weitere acht Jahre lang fortdauern wird. Mit seiner tiefgründigen Musikalität, stupenden Technik und seinem charismatischen Dirigat verwandelt Jakub Hrůša die Partituren in atemberaubende, tönende Erlebnisse, die lange in unseren Herzen nachklingen. Das Streben nach einem einzigartigen Klang, die böhmische Musiktradition und die gemeinsame Freude am Musizieren sind es, die unser Orchester mit Jakub Hrůša symbiotisch verbinden. Wir freuen uns auf eine Ära Jakub Hrůša in Bamberg!"

Vickers VC10

https://www.forces.net/news/tri-service/vc10-rafs-record-breaking-airliner

The VC10 served the Royal Air Force for 47 years, carrying passengers, freight and fuel across the globe. For tens of thousands of people, either serving in or connected to the British military, it more often than not provided them with their first experience of flying - albeit sitting backwards (the safest way for passengers to actually fly in event of a crash). Originally designed by British manufacturer Vickers-Armstrongs as a commercial jet, it lasted just 15 years flying routes for the likes of BOAC and Ghana Airways. Somewhat surprising given the fact that the aircraft still holds the record for the fastest subsonic trans-Atlantic crossing, flying from New York's JFK to Glasgow's Prestwick in 5 hours and 1 minute. A tale recounted by the [pilot Gwyn Mullett in his autobiography](https://www.amazon.co.uk/My-Head-Clouds-Part/dp/0992643325): "When I checked in with operations at JFK the flight time shown on the plan was about five and a quarter hours which was pretty quick so I asked what the record was for the route and they said that it was held by a 707 at five hours and eight minutes." "My tail was up and so I put a little bit of extra fuel on the told the people we were out to beat that time.Little did I know that they informed the control tower and so just after take-off we were told to ignore any speed restraints" "Super VC-10 G-ASGC hurtled across the North Atlantic at a speed that was just below the maximum the aircraft allowed. The Flight Engineer was in his element and spent the night fine-tuning the engines." "The Chief Steward came onto the flight deck and announced that the dinner service was complete and that the passengers were now all bedded down for the night. "I am sorry to spoil your rest break but we will be landing in just over two hours" I said. "What are we flying? A bloody Concorde or something! I will have to wake them up for a full English breakfast in one hour," he replied."Scrub the breakfast and give them champagne for landing" was my reply." For the RAF however it proved an incredible workhorse, initially flying regular long-haul routes between the likes of the UK and the Far East. At their peak in the early 1970s the aircraft were transporting 10,000 serving personnel, their families and VIPs, including The Queen, every month. More: [The Fastest Aircraft In History ](https://www.forces.tv/83148011) By the late 1970s however experiments had begun in converting the increasing numbers of redundant commercial passenger VC10s into air-to-air refuelling tankers. Proving a huge success it was a role that lasted until September 2013 and saw the plane operate in a number of conflicts, including the Falklands War and the First and Second Gulf Wars, servicing a plethora of RAF and NATO aircraft types. The VC10's safety record did not remain unblemished, however for all the hours flown just two crashes claimed lives. The RAF's only loss of a VC10 occurred at Brize Norton in 1997, when during defuelling a stationary aircraft tipped up on its tail leaving the airframe damaged beyond repair. In the same year the MoD began looking for a replacement multi-role tanker transport aircraft, although it wasn't until 16 years later that the first [RAF Voyager](https://www.forces.tv/23993050) entered operational service. More: [RAF's VIP Voyager Enters Service ](https://www.forces.tv/23993050) In 2013 the skies above RAF Brize Norton, the VC10's home for 47 years, roared for the last time with the distinctive sound of four Rolls-Royce Conway engines. The last aircraft taxi-ing to a final standstill at Bruntingthorpe, a former RAF airbase turned private aerodrome and aviation museum. Perhaps the final word on the VC10's incredible service history should go to the Captain of that final flight, Flight Lieutenant Paul Smith who said: "I was 24 years old as a fresh faced Flying Officer when I first walked up the steps of a VC10 and I'll be 52 in February so you can guess what it means to me, a bit of a bereavement." "But she deserves a rest, she's served us very well." WATCH: [Vulcan - The End Of An Era ](https://www.forces.tv/38702075)

Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis

http://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-P-Cavafy

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-P-Cavafy/additional-info) [Quick Facts & Related Topics](/facts/Constantine-P-Cavafy) Constantine P. Cavafy Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - English in full: - Constantine Petrou Cavafy - Pseudonym of: - Konstantínos Pétrou Kaváfis - Born: - April 29, 1863, [Alexandria](/place/Alexandria-Egypt), [Egypt](/place/Egypt) - Died: - April 29, 1933, [Alexandria](/place/Alexandria-Egypt)(aged 70) Constantine P. Cavafy (born April 29, 1863, Alexandria, Egypt—died April 29, 1933, Alexandria) was a Greek poet who developed his own consciously individual style and thus became one of the most important figures not only in Greek [poetry](https://www.britannica.com/art/poetry) but in Western poetry as well. He lived most of his life in Alexandria, [Egypt](https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt), loved English and [French literature](https://www.britannica.com/art/French-literature), and generally spoke English; even his Greek had a British accent. Cavafy's parents were both from the Greek [community](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community) in Constantinople (now [Istanbul](https://www.britannica.com/place/Istanbul), Turkey). His father, a merchant in the import-export business, worked in Constantinople and [England](https://www.britannica.com/place/England), establishing a firm with his brother George, The family eventually settled in Alexandria, where Constantine was born. Cavafy's father died suddenly in 1870, and two years later Cavafy's mother moved with her sons to England. The branch offices that had been established in [Liverpool](https://www.britannica.com/place/Liverpool-England) and London declined and failed, and after some seven years most of the family returned to Alexandria. They were once again uprooted in 1882, when the British bombarded the city and then occupied it. [ Britannica Quiz A Study of Poetry ](/quiz/a-study-of-poetry) The years Cavafy spent in England during his youth were instrumental in the formation of his [cosmopolitan](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmopolitan) character. He wrote much but was his own harshest critic, publishing only about 200 poems. His most important poetry was written after his 40th year, and with some justification he called himself a "poet of old age." A skeptic, he denied or ridiculed traditional values of Christianity, patriotism, and heterosexuality, though he was ill at ease with his own nonconformity. His language is a mixture of the refined and stilted Greek called Katharevusa, inherited from the [Byzantines](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Byzantines), and the Demotic, or spoken, tongue. His style and tone are [intimate](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intimate) and realistic. The lyric treatment he gave to familiar historical themes made him popular and influential after his death. He became known to English readers from the many references to his work in [Lawrence Durrell](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lawrence-Durrell)'s [The Alexandria Quartet](https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Alexandria-Quartet). Cavafy's poems were first published without date before [World War II](https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II) and reprinted in 1949. English translations of his work are numerous and include The Poems of C.P. Cavafy (1951), The Complete Poems of Cavafy (1961, expanded ed. 1976), and The Collected Poems of C.P. Cavafy (2006). Collected Poems (2009) and The Unfinished Poems (2009), both translated by Daniel Mendelsohn, are together a definitive collection in English of Cavafy's published and unpublished works. [Encyclopaedia Britannica](/contributor/encyclopaedia-britannica/12989892).

Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis

http://www.poetryfoundation.org/harriet/2008/01/more-cavafy/

More Cavafy Rigoberto writes [here](http://poetryfoundation.org/harriet/2008/01/in_praise_of_cavafy.html) of encountering Cavafy in his high school library, and the sense of discovery and liberation Cavafy's frank evocation of homosexual eroticism gave him as a young poet. Reginald writes in the comment box that: All the translations I've read make Cavafy sound like prose broken into lines--well-written, sensitive, insightful prose, but prose nonetheless. Reading the introductions to the translations and other work about Cavafy, I understand that Cavafy was an obsessive poetic craftsman, obsessively revising and refining each line. . . . None of this comes across in any of the translations I have read. This absence, combined with the relative paucity of figurative language--as I recall, Cavafy has vivid imagery, but few metaphors and similes--contributes to the prosaic feel of his poetry in the translations I've read. Cavafy is without doubt the most translated and retranslated of modern Greek poets--perhaps among the most translated of foreign poets into English period. What are these translations not bringing to the table? What are we missing when we aren't reading Cavafy in Greek? I'm actually working on a review of some translations of the Nobel-prize winning poet George Seferis' journals for a Certain Poetry Magazine as we speak. In it, Seferis himself wrestles with his mixed feelings about the greatest figure in modern Greek letters. In 1941, stationed in Cavafy's home town of Alexandria in Egypt, Seferis has a sudden insight from the landscape: "I think of Cavafy, as I inspect this low-lying land. His poetry is like that too; as prosaic as the endless plain before us. It has no rise and fall; it goes at a walking pace. I understand Cavafy better now and I respect him for what he did." (Seferis' literary circle had been very dismissive of Cavafy.) What does he mean by prosaic, by a walking pace? (A pun in Greek, by the way, since prose and pedestrian are the same word.) There is a flatness--not in terms of music, in which Cavafy's poetry is quite rich, but in terms of tone. His vehicle is often irony, which carries across into English remarkably well no matter how indifferent the translator is to the sounds and rhythms of the poetry itself. Rigoberto mentions "The City", perhaps Cavafy's most famous poem after "Ithaka" (you can hear "Ithaka" in Greek [here](http://users.hol.gr/~barbanis/cavafy/Cavafy-Ithaca.mp3)). It is a powerful poem in Rae Dalven's or Keeley and Sherrard's or almost anyone's translation. (I have mentioned earlier I think on how much I love poems that end in negation, and this one is a whopper.) But how startled I was when I first tackled it in Greek. One of the things I had never been fully aware of before were its elegant parallelisms and chiasmus (land/shore; ship/road). I was surprised to find the poem rhymes, and not only does it rhyme, but it has a curious rhyme scheme (which I have since stolen for one of my own poems about leaving a city): A B B C C D D A Some of the rhymes are actually denser than full rhyme--they are rime riche, homophones--so that "tha menei" ("shall remain") almost magically turns into "thameni" ("buried"); some are more like full consonantal rhymes-"tha gurnas" ("you will wander") turns into "tha gernas" ("you will grow old"). The rhyme scheme that appears to go somewhere only to end up where it started is not decoration--it is central to the theme of the poem. Here is a version that carries off the effect of the rhyme scheme, by David Mason, from [Arrivals](http://www.amazon.com/Arrivals-Poems-David-Mason/dp/158654036X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201715955&sr=8-1): The City after the Greek of C.P. Cavafy You said: "I'll go away to another shore, find another city better than this. In all I attempt, something remains amiss and my heart--like a dead thing--lies buried. How long will my mind stew in all its worry? Wherever I cast my eye, wherever I look, I see the ruins of my life turn black here where I wasted and wrecked many a year." You won't find a new land or another shore. This city will follow you, you'll molder in these streets, in these neighborhoods grow older, and turn gray among familiar houses. You'll always end here--don't hope for other places-- there is no ship, there is no road for you. Now that you have decided you are through with this place, you've wrecked your life everywhere. One of the curiousities on my bookshelf is a volume of translations of Cavafy by his brother, J.C. Cavafy. Sometimes slightly Victorian in flavor, they are nonetheless fascinating--one wonders if Cavafy himself had any hand in them. And they always make an effort to get across the formal elements. Here is "Interruption": We it is who interrupt the gods' effectual power, we the hasty, the inexperienced, beings of the hour. At Eleusis and at Phthia, in the regal halls, when Demeter and when Thetis by their magic arts provoke and pursue works beneficial amid mighty flames and smoke: Metaneira, half distracted as it e'er befalls, rushes from the king's apartment and cries out her fears, and there's always Peleus who suspects and interferes. Rhymed poems represent only a significant minority of Cavafy's work, however. Most poems are in unrhymed iambics--a sort of Greek blank verse. One of Cavafy's central tenets is an almost Epicurean primacy of pleasure, in Greek, "hedone" (from which we get "hedonism"). It is one of the central words in his work. Yet somehow it is always difficult to translate. "Pleasure" in English is more fraught with guilt somehow, whereas "hedone" bypasses Christianity and comes straight from the ancient philosophers. Cavafy's homosexual poems are always seen through the eyes of nostalgia. They are frank and confessional, but looking across the years lends them a distance and melancholy. Have I mentioned before how much I admire Don Paterson? (Um, yes, about a million times...) Here is his rendering of "One Night" from Landing Light: The room above the bar was the cheapest we could find. We could see the filthy alley from the window, hear the shouts of the workmen at their card-games. Yet there on that narrow bed I had love's body, knew its red lips; those lips so full, so bloody with desire that now as I write, after so many years, in this lonely house . . . I'm drunk with them again. There's much I like about this lean and clean version (not a translation). But one thing that to me is a disaster! In Greek, Love is a HE, not an IT. The word for sensual love, eros, is male in gender (Greek is a gendered language), but Eros is also the name of the Greek god of Love--identified with the Roman Cupid if you like, but he is no chubby little pink Cherub. He is a beautiful young man--a "hottie" in Rigoberto's phrase. The poem is at once ambiguous (the gender of the lover isn't actually specified) and unequivocally clear. I had Love's body, his body. The body of a god. Perhaps it is no coincidence that one of the finest translators of Cavafy to date is the sophisticated, dextrous and openly homosexual James Merrill. Alas, he only did a handful of poems. But he was alive to the wordplay, the repetition, the sounds, register shifts, and where he cannot get something across from the Greek, balances with an English equivalent. More on that perhaps later. A.E. (Alicia) Stallings is the Oxford Professor of Poetry. She grew up in Decatur, Georgia, and studied classics at the University of Georgia and Oxford University. Her poetry collections include Like (2018), a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize; Olives (2012), which was nominated for a National Book Critics Circle Award; Hapax (2006);...

Konstantinos Petrou Kavafis

http://brushheadmusings.wordpress.com/2008/06/30/thermopylae-a-poem-on-the-good-kind-of-life/

Came across this poem by Constantine P. Cavafy (translated from Greek by Edmund Keeley & Philip Sherrard) and found that it seems to say almost everything I want to say about the kind of life I want to lead. Given that I've a particular weakness for Classical references, this poem fulfills that while also saying much in its brevity and reminds us about the need to stick to one's guns and to live a life that's meaningful and principled. Thermopylae Honor to those who in the life they lead define and guard a Thermopylae. Never betraying what is right, consistent and just in all they do but showing pity also, and compassion; generous when they're rich, and when they're poor, still generous in small ways, still helping as much as they can; always speaking the truth, yet without hating those who lie. And even more honor is due to them when they foresee (as many do foresee) that Ephialtis will turn up in the end, that the Medes will break through after all. Constantine P. Cavafy The poem commemorates the famous battle of Thermopylae where the 300 Spartans and their allies stood their ground against the overwhelming numbers of Persians and through that, bought enough time for Sparta and the rest of the Greek states to muster a proper defence. Made even more famous recently by the movie 300 (which was spectacular but historically quite inaccurate – couldn't resist that reference), the battle of Thermopylae reminds us of honour, loyalty and all the good things that a soldier should be. Dulce et decorum est, pro patria mori and all that sort of thing. Couldn't resist that either. The poem beautifully takes us away from the battleground and shows us a bunch of ideas that we should live by – being constant to the principle of rightness, being compassionate and generous no matter our circumstance and being truthful in all that we do. It even brings in some nice non-judgemental ideas of not hating those who do not live by the same principles or who wrong us for we should not begrudge them their own perspectives on life either. I'm tempted to, in my biased opinion, declare how Christian the virtues are but also realise that these are virtues that are highly humanistic in nature and lie at the heart of all the major religions. Cavafy has given us a set of guides on how to lead a truly virtuous life. The final four lines are a tad disturbing, telling us that for all that we do, there will be setbacks and the potential for failure. Ephiatis was the goatherd who betrayed the Spartans by leading the Persians through an old trail which allowed the latter to encircle and outflank the defenders, leading to their ultimate defeat at the hands of the Persians and their allies the Medes. What he says is that while we do realise that we will encounter setbacks and defeats, we fight on anyway and prepare for them because it is part of our duty to do so. I was pleasantly surprised to find something as powerful and inspiring as this coming out of a martial situation like Thermopylae but everything's possible in the literary world. We all have our Thermopylaes but we all will resist and soldier on as the Spartans do. Why? Because we can and we choose to. Jacques-Louis David. Leonidas at Thermopylae. 1814. Oil on canvas. 395 x 531 cm. Louvre, Paris, France.

Silvio Berlusconi

http://www.bpb.de/apuz/28148/die-mediendemokratie-und-ihre-grenzen-am-beispiel-von-berlusconis-italien?p=all

Parteien- und Mediendemokratie: eine problematische Symbiose* In dieser Zeitschrift erschien im Dezember 2003 ein Beitrag mit dem Titel "Die Theatralität der Politik in der Mediendemokratie". Auf den ersten Blick handelt es sich um eine sehr überzeugende Analyse. Aber in dem angesprochenen Artikel werden keine Beispiele genannt, die diese Analyse konkretisieren würden. Der Autor spricht allgemein von Phänomenen, welche die Demokratien in Europa und Amerika charakterisieren. Überraschenderweise wird auch nicht der am häufigsten als extremes Beispiel einer Mediendemokratie in Europa erwähnte Fall zitiert: das Italien Silvio Berlusconis. Man kann offenbar über Mediendemokratie reden, ohne notwendigerweise den Fall Italien zu erwähnen bzw. den Tatbestand, dass Italien weder eine Ausnahme noch ein Modellbeispiel (in negativem Sinne) für Mediendemokratie darstellt. Meine Fragestellung lautet daher: Ist die mediale Demokratie Berlusconis in Europa ein ganz besonderes, einzigartig nationales Phänomen? Oder ist sie nur die Variante eines allgemeinen Trends unserer Zeit? Um diese Problematik behandeln zu können, gilt es über die allgemeinen Beobachtungen des oben zitierten Aufsatzes hinauszugehen und einige Punkte zu konkretisieren bzw. korrigieren. Erstens: Die Theatralisierung politischer Äußerungen, die Event-Politik, die Beeinflussung der politischen Agenda durch das Mediensystem, der hohe Stellenwert der Talk-Shows, welche die traditionelle Parteienkommunikation ersetzen, der Wandel der politischen Sprache selbst - all das ist nicht bloße "Scheinpolitik", sondern eine reale und irreversible Form heutiger Politik. Zweitens: Die Beziehung zwischen Parteiendemokratie und Mediendemokratie ist keine einfache, einseitige Beziehung. Vor allem ist Mediendemokratie nicht gleichzusetzen mit dem Übergang der demokratischen Kontrolle von den Parteien hin zu einem anonymen, fast apolitischen Mediensystem. Die Politik und sogar die Parteien selbst kämpfen vielmehr erfolgreich um die Kontrolle des Mediensystems und versuchen, es für ihre eigenen Zwecke zu nutzen. Damit entsteht eine neue Synthese bzw. eine Symbiose zwischen Parteienpolitik und Mediensystem. Drittens: Die Logik der Medien führt nicht notwendigerweise zur Übermittlung derselben politischen Werte. Im Prozess der Massenmedien ähneln sich mehrere Inhalte, aber es stimmt nicht, dass das Endprodukt der Mediendemokratie die simple Entpolitisierung der Gesellschaft oder die Vereinheitlichung aller politischen Werte ist, mit der Folge, dass die Werte der "Rechten" nicht mehr von denen der "Linken" zu unterscheiden wären. Viertens: Das Problem besteht darin, welche Werte von der Mediendemokratie im Unterschied zur traditionellen Demokratie - besser oder schlechter - vermittelt und welche eventuell unterdrückt werden. Noch drastischer formuliert lautet die Frage, ob die Mediendemokratie als eine bloße Pathologie im Vergleich zur traditionellen Parteiendemokratie zu sehen ist oder ob sie nicht immer noch eine wertpolitische Kultur hervorbringt, die in irgendeiner Form der Demokratie zuzuschreiben ist. *Übersetzung des Artikels aus dem Italienischen von Gian Enrico Rusconi (Torino) und Sabine Andree (Bonn). Der Fall Italien Das Beispiel Italien liefert in der Tat einige Antworten, über die es sich lohnt, kritisch nachzudenken. Erstens: Wenn sich die traditionellen Parteiendemokratie Italiens seit Anfang der neunziger Jahre in einer Krise befindet, dann gibt es dafür systemimmanente Gründe. Sie ist nicht auf den Druck oder auf die Kolonisierung durch das Mediensystem zurückzuführen, die sich (einigen Beobachtern zufolge) dem Berlusconismus verdankt. Mit Silvio Berlusconi kam es zum größten Wechsel der politischen Klasse seit 1945/48. Dieser wurde aufgrund einer strukturellen Krise des parteipolitischen Systems möglich, das dem Phänomen Berlusconi vorangegangen war und es begünstigt hatte. Berlusconi ist nicht für den Untergang der Democrazia cristiana, die Auflösung des Partito socialista italiano und den Wandel des Partito comunista italiano verantwortlich. Die Umstrukturierung des vorherigen politischen Systems, die gemeinsam mit der Initiative der Richter von Tangentopoli einsetzte, wurde lediglich durch den Berlusconismus zu Ende geführt. Es bleibt die Frage offen, wie und warum es Berlusconi gelungen ist, nicht nur sich selbst der "politisierten Justiz" - wie er diese immer genannt hat - zu entziehen, sondern wie er es darüber hinaus geschafft hat, in wenigen Jahren ein Klima des Misstrauens gegenüber der "Revolution der Justiz" zu schaffen. Doch dies zu erklären würde den Rahmen unserer Untersuchungen sprengen. Zweitens: Die Einschränkung des Pluralismus durch die Medien- oder besser durch die Fernsehdemokratie führt mit Berlusconi zu einer Repolitisierung der Gesellschaft und gerade nicht zu einer Entpolitiserung, wie sie von einigen Wissenschaftlern vorhergesagt oder befürchtet wird. Die Folge dieser Repolitisierung ist ein zugespitzter politischer Antagonismus. Gelegentlich kann sie auch Formen der Antipolitik annehmen (bis hin zur Diffamierung der Berufspolitiker), die sich jedoch von der Entpolitisierung grundlegend unterscheidet. Drittens: In diesem Kontext gewinnen zwei sehr negative Merkmale des italienischen Mediensystems große Bedeutung: (a) der absolute Vorrang der elektronischen Medien im Vergleich zu den Printmedien (Italien hat im Verhältnis zu seiner Bevölkerungszahl eine der niedrigsten Zeitungsauflagen in Europa) und (b) das bestehende Duopol des Fernsehsystems von öffentlicher RAI und dem privaten Konzern Mediaset im Besitz von Silvio Berlusconi. Das stellt fraglos eine gravierende Einschränkung des Pluralismus dar. Allerdings trägt daran in beiden Fällen nicht Berlusconi die Schuld, sondern die vorangegangene Parteiendemokratie. Berlusconi hat lediglich davon profitiert. Im Übrigen haben die Mitte-links-Parteien, die von 1996 bis 2001 an der Regierung waren, keine gesetzlichen Maßnahmen ergriffen, um dem Problem Abhilfe zu schaffen. Viertens: Wenn die Personalisierung der Politik in allen westlichen Ländern ein konstantes Merkmal der Mediendemokratie ist (das gilt für George Bush, Tony Blair und sogar für Gerhard Schröder), dann funktioniert sie je nach bereits bestehendem oder sich weiterentwickelndem politischen System doch unterschiedlich. Im Fall Italiens gründet die Personalisierung der Politik durch die Figur Berlusconi (bis zum möglichen "Fernsehpopulismus") nicht nur auf seiner Biografie, seinen persönlichen unternehmerischen Erfolgen und seinem politischen Geschick, sondern auch auf der internen Dynamik des politischen Systems Italiens, das die Gründung eines partito personale in Gestalt von Forza Italia begünstigt hat. Natürlich kritisierendieMitte-links-Parteien den Fernseh- und Medienpopulismus heftig. Aber in Wirklichkeit verwenden sie im Wahlkampf dieselben Techniken. So wurde z.B. im Februar 2004 die convention (natürlich auf Englisch) der Lista Prodi für die Europawahl als regelrechtes Politikspektakel inszeniert. Fünftens: Die Personalisierung der Parteiführung Berlusconis wäre unverständlich und ineffizient ohne den enormen politischen Profit, den eine ganze neue politische Führungsklasse aus ihr zieht. Der Berlusconismus ist nicht (mehr) die Verfolgung der Interessen und Machtansprüche einer einzelnen Person, die eine gigantische Medienfirma besitzt, sondern die Konvergenz von Interessen und Machtansprüchen einer bedeutenden italienischen politischen und sozialen Schicht, die Ausdruck einer alten Parteiendemokratie in neuem Stil ist. Mit Hilfe des Berlusconismus etabliert sich eine moderne, politisch rechts orientierte Kultur. Deshalb stellt der bloße Ausdruck "Kolonisierung der Politik durch das Mediensystem" eine Vereinfachung der italienischen Situation dar. Mehr noch: Er ist falsch, wenn er eine autonome oder sogar eine außerpolitische Logik des Mediensystems unterstellt. Im Gegenteil, der neue politische Antagonismus durchdringt eben jenes Mediensystem und führt zu dessen Polarisierung. Sechstens: Die Verluste von Berlusconis Forza Italia bei den zurückliegenden Europa-, Provinz- und Kommunalwahlen bedeuten einen unerwarteten Rückschritt für sein Streben nach uneingeschränkter politischer Führung. Dies hat auch Konsequenzen für das zukünftige Verhältnis zwischen dem angestrebten Fernsehpopulismus und der Logik der Parteiendemokratie in der Koalition und im Parlament. Einige Merkmale von Berlusconis Medienpopulismus Berlusconi ist nicht der Erfinder der Mediendemokratie, sondern nur ihrer italienischen Variante. Zum besseren Verständnis müssen wir das Zusammenspiel von Medientechnik und politischen Inhalten und Absichten der Mitte-rechts-Koalition analysieren. Darin nämlich liegt die besondere Qualität des berlusconianischen Politainment bzw. seines Medienpopulismus. Der Cavaliere Berlusconi stellt sich gern als jemand dar, welcher der alten, leistungsunfähigen Parteienpolitik (des so genannten "kleinen Politiktheaters") zugunsten einer "Politik des Handelns" und einer "Politik der aktiven Maßnahmen" ein Ende bereitet. Bedingung dafür ist die Schaffung einer direkten Vertrauensbeziehung der Wähler zum Leader. Die direkte Beziehung Berlusconis zu seiner eigenen Partei, der Forza Italia, wird zum Ideal für die Beziehung zu allen potenziellen Wählern. Dies geschieht vornehmlich mit Hilfe des Fernsehens, aber auch durch die Wahlwerbung (z.B. große Wandplakate), die immer auf das persönliche Engagement des Cavaliere Bezug nimmt. Wenn also eine direkte Vertrauensbeziehung zwischen Parteichef und Volk im Vordergrund steht, dann kann man analytisch auf das klassische Konzept des Populismus zurückgreifen. Es sei jedoch betont, dass in unserem Fall das "Volk" nur das "Volk der Wählerinnen und Wähler" ist, oder besser gesagt: der Wahlsieger. Die Philosophie lautet: Der Wahlsieg berechtigt den gewählten Parteichef nicht nur dazu, sich voll und ganz zum Regieren legitimiert zu fühlen, sondern auch, die Gesetze nach eigenem Belieben zu ändern - so als ob jede Wahl Verfassungscharakter hätte. Der Wählerkonsens wird auch zu einem Argument, um das Verhalten der Justiz oder zumindest einiger Richter und Staatsanwälte zu kritisieren, die sich - so Berlusconi - berechtigt fühlten, Prozesse eigenmächtig und politisiert durchzuführen, obwohl sie nicht vom Volk ernannt worden seien, sondern lediglich ein Staatsexamen bestanden hätten. Hierzu nur ein Beispiel: Ende Januar 2003, am Tag nachdem das Mailänder Tribunal als Verhandlungsort der Prozesse gegen Berlusconi und seinen Freund und Anwalt Cesare Previti wegen Richter-Bestechung bestätigt worden war, wurde eine Videoaufnahme ausgestrahlt, in der Berlusconi wörtlich erklärte: "In einer liberalen Demokratie wird derjenige, der entsprechend dem souveränen Wählerwillen regiert, nur von seinesgleichen, d.h. von vom Volk gewählten Vertretern, beurteilt, sofern er im Amt ist und Staatsangelegenheiten leitet. Die Regierung gehört dem Volk und dem, der es repräsentiert. Sie gehört nicht demjenigen, der, nachdem er in einem Bewerbungsverfahren erfolgreich war und eine Robe angezogen hat, nun die Aufgabe hat, das Recht anzuwenden." Neben dem Misstrauen gegenüber den Richtern kultiviert der Populismus auch das Misstrauen gegenüber Berufspolitikern, die selbst in wichtigsten Fragen für inkompetent erklärt werden. Statt ihrer sollte, so Berlusconi, das Wahlvolk diejenigen bevorzugen, die auf der Basis erworbener Fähigkeiten - besonders im Arbeitsbereich und im Unternehmenssektor - Politik machen wollen. Während Berlusconi das Parlament damit nicht in Frage stellt, ging der historische Populismus der dreißiger bis fünfziger Jahre in seiner Polemik so weit, einen Gegensatz zwischen dem Parlament und dem werktätigen Volk aufzubauen. Nichtsdestoweniger stellt sich die Frage nach der demokratischen Qualität der stets antagonistischen Auseinandersetzung und der antipolitischen Töne im Wahlkampf. In besonderer Weise ermöglicht das Fernsehen die Fiktion einer direkten Verbindung zwischen den Wählerinnen und Wählern und dem Leader und kann einen Gegensatz zur Ferne der Berufspolitiker erzeugen. Hierzu gehört die "falsche Intimität", die zwischen demjenigen entsteht, der auf dem Fernsehbildschirm zu sehen und zu hören ist, und demjenigen, der zu Hause, in seinem Sessel sitzend, zuhört. Sie begünstigt die Abschaffung des politischen Jargons und die Einführung einer vertrauten, schlichten Alltagssprache einfacher Leute, die reich an Gemeinplätzen und Vorurteilen ist. Abgesehen von der Sprache verleiht auch die Inszenierung dem politischen Ereignis die gleiche Atmosphäre wie in einer Reality Show, in der die Fiktion realer ist als die Realität selbst. In diesem Ambiente gibt sich Berlusconi nicht unnahbar und außergewöhnlich, sondern als ein erfolgreicher - weil arbeitsamer - Mensch und als "gutes Familienoberhaupt". In der Fernsehdemokratie wird die politische Auseinandersetzung bekanntermaßen durch Talkshows ersetzt, eine Form der öffentlichen Debatte zwischen Politikern, die in allen westlichen Ländern stark verbreitet ist und in Italien eine außergewöhnliche Bedeutung hat. Einige Talkshows entsprechen inoffiziellen politischen Gesprächsrunden, in denen die Politiker Erklärungen abgeben, statt sich im Parlament oder im Parteibüro zu äußern. Vor allem aber ist die Talkshow der Austragungsort par excellence, der es ermöglicht, komplexe Argumentationen zu vermeiden. Bei entsprechender Schlagfertigkeit lässt sich der politische Gegner rhetorisch außer Gefecht setzen, ohne auf dessen Argumente überhaupt eingehen zu müssen. Was zählt, ist, einen siegreichen Eindruck bei den Zuschauern zu hinterlassen, den Gegner in Verlegenheit gebracht zu haben. Auch wenn Berlusconi lieber allein vor den Kameras steht, so dominiert er mit seiner schier überbordenden Präsenz, die bisweilen mit Aggressivität einhergeht, immer jedoch mit großer Emotionalität, selbst Talkshows. Die internationale Kritikan Berlusconi In ganz Europa lässt sich heute keine kontroversere und keine stärker kritisierte Führungsgestalt finden als Berlusconi. Die Kritik gilt aber nicht so sehr der inhaltlichen Politik seit der Regierungsübernahme, sondern vielmehr dem Konflikt zwischen seinen privaten Interessen (als Besitzer der wichtigsten Kommunikationsmittel) und seinem politischen Amt, was als "Interessenkonflikt" bezeichnet wird. "Why Silvio Berlusconi is unfit to lead Italy" und "Dear Mr. Berlusconi. Our challenge to Italy's prime minister", dies sind zwei Titelblattschlagzeilen der Zeitschrift "The Economist" (vom 28. April 2001 und 30. Juli 2003), gefolgt von zwei Artikeln, deren Ziel es war, den Fall Berlusconi auf eine internationale Ebene zu bringen. Kaum weniger drastisch war "Der Spiegel" in Deutschland mit seinem Aufmacher vom 30. Juni 2003, der lautete: "Berlusconi: Der Pate, jetzt auch in Europa". Diese Angriffe hatten jedoch keinerlei Konsequenzen. Vielmehr hat Berlusconi in der zweiten Jahreshälfte des Jahres 2003 ganz normal das Amt des EU-Ratspräsidenten ausgeübt, wobei es allerdings zu dem bekannten unerfreulichen Wortwechsel im Straßburger Parlament gekommen ist. Am 5. April 2004 hat das Europäische Parlament einen Bericht "über Gefahren der Verletzung des Rechts auf freie Meinungsäußerung und Informationsfreiheit (Artikel 11 Absatz 2 der Charta der Grundrechte) in der EU, vor allem in Italien" vorgelegt. Tatsächlich hat das Europäische Parlament mit äußerst knapper Mehrheit eine Resolution verabschiedet, die das Problem des Pluralismus der Informationssysteme nur sehr allgemein behandelt, ohne dabei nachdrücklich auf Berlusconi hinzuweisen. Die Abgeordneten der italienischen Mitte-rechts-Parteien haben die Resolution abgelehnt, da sie diese für eine unpassende politische Initiative hielten, die "von der italienischen Linken auf anti-nationale, hinterhältige Weise unterstützt worden sei". Inzwischen hat die Mitte-rechts-Mehrheit in Rom trotz heftiger Kritik der Opposition mit dem so genannten "Gasparri-Gesetz" eine Neuregelung des Mediensektors getroffen. Damit wird das gesamte Kommunikationssystem (Sistema Integrato della Comunicazione/SIC) in einer Weise reguliert, die den Interessenkonflikt Berlusconis in Zukunft möglicherweise tatsächlich relativiert. Lösung der Probleme der Mediendemokratie? Das italienische Fernsehduopol aus RAI und Mediaset kontrolliert 80 Prozent der Sendeanlagen, wird von 90 Prozent der Zuschauer verfolgt und strahlt 97 Prozent der Fernsehwerbung aus, was erhebliche Auswirkungen auf die gesamten Werbeeinnahmen hat. In Italien fließen 53,3 Prozent des Werbebudgets an die Fernsehanstalten, während der Durchschnitt in Europa bei 29 Prozent liegt. Mediaset allein erhält mehr Werbeaufträge als die gesamte Tages- und Wochenpresse zusammengenommen. Diese Situation ist für den "Wettbewerb der Ideen" und die freie Meinungsäußerung sehr nachteilig und wurde von den zuständigen Behörden schon angeprangert. So hat die Wettbewerbsbehörde (Autorità Garante della concorrenza e del mercato) im Mai 2003 erklärt: "Im Verlauf der letzten 10 Jahre hat sich eine duopolistische Marktstruktur konsolidiert, in der starke Zugangsbeschränkungen die Entfaltung von wettbewerblichem Druck entschieden eingeschränkt, wenn nicht sogar behindert haben und damit zu einer unausgewogenen Marktstruktur geführt haben." Es gibt in Italien zurzeit elf staatliche Konzessionen für landesweite Fernsehsender (von denen einer, "Europa 7", aus Mangel an Frequenzen nicht ausgestrahlt werden kann). Drei Sender entfallen auf die RAI (RAI 1, RAI 2 , RAI 3), drei weitere gehören zu Mediaset (Canale 5, Italia 1 und Rete 4), wobei Letzterer gegen die Monopolbestimmungen verstößt. Mediaset wurde daraufhin mehrfach aufgefordert, die Ausstrahlung von Rete 4 auf Satellitenempfang umzustellen. Berlusconi ist dieser Anweisung jedoch zu keinem Zeitpunkt nachgekommen - mit der Begründung, sie sei ein Akt der Willkür und diene seiner persönlichen Verfolgung. Die Auseinandersetzung um Rete 4 beschleunigte die Suche nach einer umfassenden rechtlichen Lösung dieser Angelegenheit. Schon seit Jahren verlangt das italienische Verfassungsgericht unter Vorgabe entsprechender Richtlinien in mehreren Urteilen eine Reform des Systems. Im Jahr 1994 ließ es verlauten, der Gesetzgeber habe die Aufgabe, "das Entstehen von monopolartigen Positionen innerhalb des Privatfernsehens zu unterbinden und die Meinungsvielfalt im Fernsehen zu fördern. Das Bestehen eines öffentlichen Fernsehens kann die Vormachtstellung eines Privatsenders nicht ausgleichen." Bereits am 20. November 2002 hatte das Verfassungsgericht ein ähnlich deutliches Urteil verkündet: "Die Beschränkung der für landesweite Ausstrahlungen verfügbaren Frequenzen durch die Analogtechnik hat sich weiter zugespitzt, sich nachteilig auf die Prinzipien von Meinungsvielfalt und freiem Wettbewerb ausgewirkt und zu einer weiteren Machtkonzentration geführt." Auf dieses Urteil nahm der italienische Staatspräsident am 23. Juli 2002 in seinem "offenen Brief an die Kammern" ausdrücklich Bezug, als er von Meinungsvielfalt und Unabhängigkeit der Informationsquellen gesprochen hat. Er bezeichnet das zitierte Urteil des Verfassungsgerichts "gerade dort als besonders wichtig, wo es heraushebt, dass das bloße Bestehen eines Privatsenders (die so genannte externe Meinungsvielfalt) nicht ausreicht, um Vollständigkeit und Objektivität der politischen Kommunikation zu garantieren, wenn nicht darüber hinaus weitere Maßnahmen ergriffen werden, die sich am Prinzip des gleichberechtigten Zugangs der politischen Kräfte zu den Medien (der so genannten internen Meinungsvielfalt) orientieren". Der Staatspräsident forderte daraufhin das Parlament auf, ein Gesetz vorzubereiten, das "den gesamten Kommunikationssektor, d.h. Radio, Fernsehen und Presse sowie deren Beziehungen untereinander, grundlegend regelt. Bei der Ausarbeitung dieses Gesetzes muss, besonders im Hinblick auf das Fernsehen, nachdrücklich auf die zentrale Bedeutung des öffentlichen Auftrags geachtet werden." Es ist außerordentlich wichtig, dass der Präsident in seiner Botschaft auf die Bedeutsamkeit der neuen "digitalen" Technologie für die Lösung des Problems hinweist. Genau darauf zielt das Gesetz der Regierung Berlusconi, das mit Hilfe des Ministers für Kommunikation, Maurizio Gasparri, verabschiedet wurde. Es erzwingt die Einführung des digitalen Fernsehens bis zum Jahr 2006 und damit zugleich mehr Fernsehsender und mehr Informationen sowie eine größere Meinungsvielfalt dank des sehr breit gefächerten Integrierten Kommunikationssystems (SIC). Dieses umfasst Fernseh- und Radioanstalten, das gesamte Presse- und Verlagswesen, elektronische Medien, die Film- und Phonoindustrie sowie die Werbebranche, und zwar unabhängig von der Form ihrer Verbreitung. Kurzum: Es umfasst wirklich alles, was mit Kommunikation im engeren und weiteren Sinne zu tun hat und entspricht dem ungeheuren Marktwert von geschätzten 20 bis 25 Milliarden Euro. Es wurden neue Bestimmungen zur Vermeidung von Kartellbildungen eingeführt, denen zufolge kein Unternehmer mehr als 20 Prozent Anteil am Gesamtvolumen haben darf. Zurzeit unterschreiten alle italienischen Medienunternehmen dieses Limit deutlich. Das gilt auch für den Konzern Mediaset, dessen Vorzugsstellung durch das neue Gesetz zwar reglementiert wurde, dem sich nun aber zugleich neue Wege eröffnen, die natürlich den potenziellen Konkurrenten ebenfalls offen stehen. Die Idee, Fernsehen, Presse, Telekommunikation und Verlagswesen zu einem einzigen Markt zu vereinen, gab es als Projekt schon unter früheren Regierungen, ebenso die Idee, bis 2006 ins digitale Zeitalter einzutreten. Die Mitte-links-Opposition hat jedoch heftigen Widerstand gegen das "Gasparri-Gesetz" geleistet. Sie sieht darin ein Ausweichen vor den Problemen mit Mediaset, da es die grundsätzliche Frage nach dem Duopol RAI-Mediaset Fortbestand der Parteiendemokratie und Grenzen des Fernsehpopulismus Nach der Verabschiedung des Gasparri-Gesetzes und anderer Gesetze durch das Parlament besteht in Italien nicht mehr einfach nur ein persönliches Problem Berlusconis (mit seinem Interessenkonflikt), vielmehr ist eine Situation entstanden, in der die gesamte Mitte-rechts-Führungsklasse zum Nutznießer des Berlusconismus wird. Obwohl diese intuitiv gegen das "Phänomen Berlusconi" war, hat es doch eine neue Dynamik in die Parteiendemokratie gebracht. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist das Ergebnis der italienischen Europa- und Kommunalwahlen im Juni 2004 symptomatisch, auch wenn es nicht überbewertet werden sollte. Die Schwächung von Forza Italia innerhalb der Mitte-rechts-Koalition zwingt Berlusconi dazu, sich als Vermittler bei den unterschiedlichen Bedürfnissen seiner Bündnispartner zu bewähren. Sein Fernsehpopulismus scheint nicht mehr der ausschlaggebende Faktor zugunsten des Mitte-rechts-Bündnisses zu sein. Diese Erkenntnis lässt auch die vergangenen Wahlen im Jahr 2001, als der deutliche Sieg Berlusconis seiner unbezwingbaren Medienpräsenz und seinem persönlichen Einfluss zugeschrieben wurde, in einem anderen Licht erscheinen. Vom heutigen Standpunkt aus betrachtet, ist das Geschehen differenzierter zu beurteilen. Es handelt sich dabei allerdings nicht um ein einfaches Urteil ex post nach dem Motto "Hinterher ist man immer klüger", denn einige soziologische und politikwissenschaftliche Studien hatten schon beizeiten davor gewarnt, eine allzu direkte Verbindung zwischen der ungeheuren Medienpräsenz Berlusconis und dem Verhalten der Wählerinnen und Wähler herzustellen. Eine genauere Analyse des Ausgangs der Wahlen von 2001 hatte gezeigt, dass der wahre Erfolg Berlusconis darauf beruhte, dass er all denjenigen eine politische Heimat bot, die keine linke Partei wählen wollten, und so dem bereits existierenden politischen Antagonismus eine neue Form gegeben hat. Hieraus lassen sich zwei Schlussfolgerungen ziehen. Erstens: Der Polarisierung auf politischer Ebene entspricht eine latente Polarisierung auf der Ebene der Medien (RAI versus Mediaset), zumindest bei den Erwartungen und in der Wahrnehmung der Wähler. Zweitens: Die Regierung Berlusconi betrachtet die öffentliche Sendeanstalt (RAI) als potenziell feindlich gesinnt und unempfänglich für ihre politische Gesinnung. Daher rührt die Notwendigkeit, die RAI zu kontrollieren - auch mit Hilfe entsprechender Reformen. "Italienische Wahlkampagnen laufen derzeit nach einem ganz ungewöhnlichen Muster ab, indem sie als Spektakel inszenierte (in Form von medienunterstütztem Wahlkampf) mit ideologischen Gegenüberstellungen (in der Tradition der ehemaligen Partywahlkämpfe) verbinden und dadurch gänzlich unterschiedliche Effekte hervorrufen: auf der einen Seite größere Polarisierung und damit auch eine stärkere Mobilisierung der eigenen Wählerschaft - gerade wegen der Dramatik des ideologischen Elementes -, auf der anderen Seite zunehmende Ernüchterung." Wichtigstes Ergebnis des bisher Gesagten ist, dass die Mediendemokratie all'italiana die Parteiendemokratie nicht ersetzt hat, sondern dass es zu einer neuartigen, allerdings nicht unproblematischen Symbiose gekommen ist. Insbesondere der Fernsehpopulismus Berlusconis stößt dabei an seine Grenzen. Insofern erweisen sich die Argumente derjenigen, die im In- und Ausland den Berlusconismus als Mediendiktatur betrachtet haben, der auf direktem Wege zu einer Demontage der Demokratie führen würde, als nicht überzeugend.

Luca Zaia

https://www.theitaliantimes.it/politica/luca-zaia-biografia-lega-nord-curriculum-programma-politico_270418/''

Ricerca Pagina non trovata [ il secondo più alto nella scala di sicurezzaAllerta terrorismo nelle basi USA in Europa: massima sicurezza](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/2024/07/01/allerta-terrorismo-basi-usa-europa-massima-sicurezza/) Tensione alta nelle basi militari statunitensi con gli Europei di calcio e le Olimpiadi di Parigi. La minaccia spinge lâallerta al livello âCharlieâ. in Mondo [ la conferenza stampaAutonomia della Figc e fiducia in Spalletti: le parole di Gravina](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/2024/07/01/euro-2024-italia-gravina-spalletti-figc-conferenza-stampa/) Gabriele Gravina difende la continuità del progetto del ct e traccia una linea chiara per la valorizzazione dei giovani talenti nel calcio italiano in Sport [ evacuati residenti e turistiMaltempo in Valle dâAosta e Piemonte: isolamenti e danni ingenti](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/2024/07/01/maltempo-italia-nord-valle-d-aosta-piemonte/) Emergenza nel nord Italia: i territori colpiti duramente da una serie di frane, smottamenti e allagamenti che hanno creato forti disagi alla popolazione in Italia [ elezioni, il secondo turno il 7 luglio Francia: Le Pen avanti, sinistra e centro uniti contro il fronte RN](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/2024/07/01/elezioni-francia-2024-primo-turno-le-pen-sfida-sinistra/) Record di affluenza ai seggi francesi al 65%: Le Pen al 34%, sinistra al 28,1%, Macron fermo al 20,3%. Incognita sui ballottaggi per il potere legislativo in Mondo [ il grande flop della NazionaleEURO 2024, delusione Italia: umiliata e annullata dal dominio svizzero](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/2024/06/30/euro-2024-italia-perde-contro-svizzera-delusione/) Gli Azzurri lasciano gli Europei dopo una sonora sconfitta per 2-0 contro la Svizzera. La squadra di Spalletti mai in partita, eliminata agli ottavi in Sport

Luca Zaia

https://elezioni.repubblica.it/2020/elezioni-regionali/veneto

Il Veneto al voto per le regionali del 20 e 21 settembre 2020. Si vota fino alle ore 15, poi al via lo spoglio (dopo il referendum). In questa pagina i risultati in tempo reale per il Veneto, per vedere se exit poll e proiezioni saranno confermate, chi sarà il nuovo governatore, il risultato di centrodestra e centrosinistra, le reazioni di Pd, Lega, M5s, Forza Italia e Fratelli d'Italia. Tutto sulle elezioni regionali 2020 in Veneto. Sono sette le regioni al voto in queste elezioni: Toscana, Marche, Campania, Puglia, Veneto, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Zaia Presidente||916.087||44,6%||24| |Lega Salvini||347.832||16,9%||9| |Fratelli d'Italia||196.310||9,6%||5| |Forza Italia - Autonomia||73.244||3,6%||2| |Lista Veneta Autonomia||48.932||2,4%||1| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Partito democratico||244.881||11,9%||6| |Il Veneto che Vogliamo||41.275||2,0%||1| |Europa Verde||34.647||1,7%||1| |+Veneto in Europa - Volt||14.246||0,7%||-| |Sanca Autonomia||2.405||0,1%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Movimento 5 Stelle||55.281||2,7%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Movimento 3V||14.916||0,7%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Partito dei Veneti||19.756||1,0%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Solidarietà Ambiente Lavoro - Rifondazione Pci||11.846||0,6%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Italia Viva - Civica per il Veneto - Pri - Psi||12.426||0,6%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Veneto Ecologia Solidarietà||9.061||0,4%||-| |Candidati e liste||VOTI||PERCENTUALE||SEGGI| |Veneto per le Autonomie||12.028||0,6%||-|

2019 Monaco Grand Prix

https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/news/verslag-kwalificatie-grand-prix-monaco-2019/4395543/

Hamilton met ijzersterke ronde naar pole in Monaco, Verstappen P3 Lewis Hamilton heeft de pole-position veroverd voor de Grand Prix van Monaco. De Brit was in de slotfase van de kwalificatie Valtteri Bottas te snel af. Max Verstappen start zondag als derde in Monaco, terwijl Ferrari zich blameerde met een zestiende tijd van Charles Leclerc. Nadat Lewis Hamilton de snelste tijden had gereden in de eerste trainingen op donderdag, was Charles Leclerc verrassend de [rapste man in de afsluitende oefensessie](https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/news/verslag-derde-training-grand-prix-monaco-2019/4395542/) op zaterdag. De Monegask moest tijdens de lunch alleen wel bij de stewards komen omdat hij te hard had gereden tijdens een Virtual Safety Car, die nota bene werd ingesteld na een crash van teamgenoot Sebastian Vettel in Sainte Dévote. Leclerc kwam weg met een reprimande en de auto van Vettel was op tijd hersteld voor de kwalificatie, waarmee het voor beide rijders goed afliep. Maar het was voor het Italiaanse team niettemin een onstuimige aanloop naar de allesbepalende tijdtraining. Q1: Ferrari stuntelt [Max Verstappen](https://nl.motorsport.com/driver/max-verstappen/273717/) stond in de openingsfase bovenaan na eerst een 1.11.725 te hebben gereden en er daarna een 1.11.597 van te hebben gemaakt. Mercedes-coureurs Lewis Hamilton en Valtteri Bottas gingen daar echter nog onder door een fractie rapper te gaan met een 1.11.542 en een 1.11.562. Vettel zakte in de laatste minuten weg in de tijdenlijst en bracht zichzelf verder in problemen door met nog enkele minuten te gaan de vangrail bij het zwembad te raken, waarna hij onverrichter zake terugkeerde naar de pits. De Duitser was net op tijd terug op de baan om nog een laatste snelle ronde te kunnen doen en noteerde op de valreep nog de snelste tijd in het eerste kwalificatiedeel met een 1.11.434. De viervoudig wereldkampioen zorgde er daarmee echter wel voor dat zijn Monegaskische teamgenoot bij de eerste groep afvallers behoorde. Charles Leclerc miste vijf minuten voor het einde een sein om naar de weegbrug te gaan en moest door de monteurs van Ferrari worden teruggeduwd richting de FIA-garage, waarmee er waardevolle tijd verloren ging. Het team dacht daarna dat Leclerc wel veilig was en niet opnieuw naar buiten hoefde, maar dit bleek een foute inschatting. Mede door toedoen van Vettel terugzakte Leclerc weg naar de zestiende plek, waarmee hij net aan de verkeerde kant van de streep eindigde. Naast Leclerc, die na afloop van Q1 hevig teleurgesteld door de pitstraat beende, waren ook de beide coureurs van SportPesa Racing Point na de eerste sessie klaar, met een zeventiende tijd voor Sergio Perez en achttiende tijd van Lance Stroll. Williams-rijders George Russell en Robert Kubica waren weer eens langzaamsten en delen zondag de laatste startrij. Q2: Verstappen snelste Verstappen liet zich in Q2 ook weer goed zien. De Red Bull-coureur was de rapste in de tweede sessie met een 1.10.618, terwijl Bottas en Hamilton in dit deel de tweede en derde tijd noteerden. Vettel stuurde zijn Ferrari naar de vierde tijd, op respectabele afstand van de top-drie. Haas-coureur Romain Grosjean werd behoorlijk in de weg gereden door Pierre Gasly en toucheerde de vangrail bij het zwembad, waardoor hij bleef steken op de dertiende tijd. Daarmee was de Fransman, die zijn teamgenoot Kevin Magnussen de vijfde tijd zag rijden en eenmaal terug in de pits een vloek niet kon onderdrukken, samen met Nico Hülkenberg, Lando Norris, Kimi Raikkonen en Antonio Giovinazzi uitgeschakeld na Q2. Q3: Hamilton ongenaakbaar Bottas opende het bal in Q3 met een 1.10.252. Verstappen ging aanvankelijk naar de tweede plek in de tijdenlijst met een 1.10.641, maar zakte een positie nadat Hamilton met enige moeite een 1.10.483 had neergezet. Zo stond Mercedes na de eerste runs eerste en tweede, terwijl Verstappen op een voorlopige derde startplek bivakkeerde, met Vettel naast zich op P4. Met nog een paar minuten op de klok meldde de volledige top-tien zich terug op de baan voor een laatste snelle ronde. Vettel kwam opnieuw tegen de vangrail aan en was daarmee gezien. Hamilton ging ondertussen paars in de eerste sector en groen in het tweede deel om met een 1.18.280 aan de meet naar de eerste stek te gaan. Bottas brak zijn ronde af na een langzame tweede sector en Verstappen zou zich eveneens niet verbeteren, waarmee de pole voor Hamilton een feit was. Gasly kwalificeerde zich als vijfde, maar krijgt mogelijk nog een gridstraf voor het hinderen van Grosjean. Vooralsnog deelt hij de derde rij met Kevin Magnussen. Daniel Ricciardo, Daniil Kvyat, Carlos Sainz en Alexander Albon bezetten voorlopig de startplaatsen zeven tot en met tien, maar schuiven mogelijk dus nog naar voren wanneer Gasly een penalty ontvangt. De 77ste editie van de Grand Prix van Monaco start zondag om 15.10 uur. Naar verluidt is de kans op regen rond die tijd zestig procent. De voorlopige startopstelling in Monaco: |Pos||Coureur||Tijd||Verschil| |1|| |[Valtteri Bottas](/driver/valtteri-bottas/269367/) [Max Verstappen](/driver/max-verstappen/273717/) [Sebastian Vettel](/driver/sebastian-vettel/263302/) [Pierre Gasly](/driver/pierre-gasly/275778/) [Volledige uitslag](/f1/results/2019/gp-van-monaco-419447/?st=GRID) Trailer van de nieuwe F1-film 'Heroes': [ Vorig artikel Leclerc snelste in laatste training Monaco, crash voor Vettel ](/f1/news/verslag-derde-training-grand-prix-monaco-2019/4395542/) [ Volgend artikel Leclerc woedend na blunder Ferrari: "Ik wil antwoorden krijgen" ](/f1/news/leclerc-woedend-blunder-ferrari-monaco/4395756/) Beste reacties [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ Formule 1 De meeste overwinningen in F1: Dit zijn de 10 beste coureurs aller tijden ](/f1/news/10-beste-f1-coureurs-ooit-lewis-hamilton-michael-schumacher-en-meer/6869701/) De meeste overwinningen in F1: Dit zijn de 10 beste coureurs aller tijden [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Russell ziet lichtpuntjes ondanks gapend gat naar Red Bull ](/f1/news/george-russell-ziet-lichtpuntjes-ondanks-gapende-gat-red-bull/10629401/) Russell ziet lichtpuntjes ondanks gapend gat naar Red Bull [ Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Upgrade zorgt voor problemen met bouncing, stelt Sainz ](/f1/news/upgrade-problemen-bouncing-carlos-sainz/10629315/) Upgrade zorgt voor problemen met bouncing, stelt Sainz [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk VIDEO: Charles Leclerc vergooit kansen op goed resultaat in F1-kwalificatie ](/f1/news/video-charles-leclerc-vergooit-kansen-goed-resultaat-f1-kwalificatie/10629263/) VIDEO: Charles Leclerc vergooit kansen op goed resultaat in F1-kwalificatie Net binnen [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ F1 Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? ](/f1/news/rijdersrapporten-f1-gp-oostenrijk-wie-krijgt-hoogste-cijfer/10630270/) Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? [ MGP MotoGP Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025 ](/motogp/news/ducati-huidige-crewchief-enea-bastianini-marc-marquez-toewijzen-2025/10630273/) Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025

2019 Monaco Grand Prix

https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/news/gridstraf-drie-plaatsen-pierre-gasly-antonio-giovinazzi-monaco/4395977/

Gridstraf van drie plaatsen voor Gasly en Giovinazzi Pierre Gasly zal op zondag een gridstraf moeten incasseren van drie plekken. De Fransman kwalificeerde zich met een vijfde tijd, maar hinderde Romain Grosjean in diens poging een snelle ronde neer te zetten. Vlak voor de vlag viel in Q2 keerde [Romain Grosjean](https://nl.motorsport.com/driver/romain-grosjean/265688/) terug naar de pitstraat. De Haas-coureur was over de boordradio luid foeterend te horen over iets wat [Gasly](https://nl.motorsport.com/driver/pierre-gasly/275778/) op zijn geweten had. De twee kwamen elkaar bij de bocht naar rechts naast het Casino tegen in de slotfase van de tweede sessie op het moment dat Grosjean bezig was aan zijn laatste run en zich wat betreft uitschakeling in de gevarenzone bevond. Grosjean was na afloop niet te spreken over de actie van zijn landgenoot bij [Red Bull](https://nl.motorsport.com/team/red-bull-racing/6572/). "Eerlijk waar, mensen geven er geen donder om." Door het incident bleef hij steken op de dertiende positie en kon hij niet meer door naar Q3. Gasly kon daarentegen nog wel vechten voor de overgebleven tien plekjes en eindigde op P5. Lang heeft hij er niet van kunnen genieten, want de stewards hebben hem na afloop een gridstraf van drie plekken opgelegd en een strafpunt op zijn licentie. Behalve Gasly, die nu achter Magnussen, Ricciardo en Kvyat start op zondag, heeft [Antonio Giovinazzi](https://nl.motorsport.com/driver/antonio-giovinazzi/275032/) van [Alfa Romeo](https://nl.motorsport.com/team/alfaromeo/6575/) dezelfde straf gekregen voor het belemmeren van Nico Hülkenbergs run bij La Rascasse in Q1. De Italiaan werd pas laat gewaarschuwd door zijn team, maar had volgens de stewards sowieso meer ruimte kunnen laten. Hij zal van P15 teruggezet worden naar P18. Voor de coureurs die de weegbrug misten is overigens geen straf uitgedeeld. Eerder op de dag kwam Charles Leclerc weg met een reprimande nadat hij iets te hard bleef rijden onder de virtual safety car. [ Vorig artikel Verstappen ziet P3 niet als revanche voor eerdere incidenten ](/f1/news/max-verstappen-kwalificatie-monaco-revanche-incidenten/4395861/) [ Volgend artikel Vettel na P4 in kwalificatie: "Het was een zware en rare dag" ](/f1/news/sebastian-vettel-een-zware-en-rare-dag-ferrari-monaco/4396024/) Beste reacties [ Le Mans 24 uur van Le Mans Ferrari-coureurs bezorgd om ban op bandenwarmers 24 uur van Le Mans ](/lemans/news/ferrari-coureurs-bezorgd-ban-bandenwarmers-24-uur-van-le-mans/10617715/) Ferrari-coureurs bezorgd om ban op bandenwarmers 24 uur van Le Mans [ WEC Monza Ferrari uit op subtiele wijze onvrede over Balance of Performance na 6 uur van Monza ](/wec/news/ferrari-uit-subtiele-wijze-onvrede-balance-of-performance-6-uur-monza/10494236/) Ferrari uit op subtiele wijze onvrede over Balance of Performance na 6 uur van Monza [ Le Mans 24 uur van Le Mans Pier Guidi vreesde Ferrari-zege weg te gooien in 24 uur van Le Mans ](/lemans/news/alessandro-pier-guidi-ferrari-zege-weg-gooien-24-uur-le-mans/10481856/) Pier Guidi vreesde Ferrari-zege weg te gooien in 24 uur van Le Mans [ Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Coulthard: "Lando is nog aan het leren hoe hij met Max moet vechten" ](/f1/news/david-coulthard-lando-norris-nog-leren-hoe-max-verstappen-moet-vechten/10630291/) Coulthard: "Lando is nog aan het leren hoe hij met Max moet vechten" [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Brundle over incident Verstappen-Norris: "Dit was de Max van jaren geleden" ](/f1/news/martin-brundle-incident-max-verstappen-lando-norris-max-jaren-geleden/10630175/) Brundle over incident Verstappen-Norris: "Dit was de Max van jaren geleden" Net binnen [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ F1 Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? ](/f1/news/rijdersrapporten-f1-gp-oostenrijk-wie-krijgt-hoogste-cijfer/10630270/) Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? [ MGP MotoGP Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025 ](/motogp/news/ducati-huidige-crewchief-enea-bastianini-marc-marquez-toewijzen-2025/10630273/) Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025

2019 Monaco Grand Prix

https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/news/verslag-monaco-f1-grand-prix-2019/4396461/

Hamilton behaalt zwaarbevochten zege, Verstappen vierde na straf Lewis Hamilton heeft Niki Lauda het ultieme eerbetoon bezorgd door de Grand Prix van Monaco te winnen. De Brit hield een sterk rijdende Max Verstappen met hangen en wurgen achter zich. De Nederlander finishte vlak achter de Mercedes-coureur als tweede, maar viel door een tijdstraf voor een 'unsafe release' terug naar de vierde plek. Sebastian Vettel en Valtteri Bottas schoven op naar de tweede en derde plaats. Voor aanvang van de race was er veel aandacht voor Niki Lauda, die afgelopen maandag op zeventigjarige leeftijd is overleden. Alle coureurs droegen op de grid een rode pet, die zo karakteristiek was voor de Oostenrijkse held, en er werd een minuut stilte gehouden voor de drievoudig wereldkampioen Formule 1. Daarnaast was er ook veel aandacht voor de lucht boven het prinsdom. Aanvankelijk leek het een volledig droge wedstrijd te worden, maar enkele minuten voor de start meldde de FIA op de officiële tijdschermen dat de kans op neerslag tijdens de race liefst negentig procent was. Polesitter Lewis Hamilton bleef op kop bij de start, terwijl Valtteri Bottas nog maar net Max Verstappen achter zich hield voor de tweede plaats door behoorlijk resoluut in te sturen bij de eerste bocht. De Nederlander moest zo in de openingsfase genoegen nemen met de derde positie, terwijl Sebastian Vettel vierde bleef en Daniel Ricciardo met zijn Renault naar de vijfde plek steeg door Haas-coureur Kevin Magnussen te verschalken bij de start. Verder naar achteren probeerde Charles Leclerc, die door een strategische blunder van zijn team in de kwalificatie als vijftiende moest beginnen, uit alle macht naar voren te komen in zijn eerste thuisrace voor Ferrari. De Monegask lag na de eerste ronde dertiende, waarna hij de druk begon op te voeren bij Romain Grosjean. De Fransman maakte zich erg breed in de smalle straten van Monaco, maar liet na acht ronden net iets te veel ruimte bij Rascasse, waardoor de Ferrari-coureur er langs kon duiken. Een ronde later hoopte Leclerc dit kunststukje te herhalen bij Nico Hülkenberg, maar dit keer raakte hij met zijn rechter achterwiel de vangrails. Al snel bleek hij een lekke band te hebben opgelopen, die in de volgende ronde compleet aan flarden ging. Terwijl Leclerc links en rechts voorbij werd gereden, sloegen losse lappen rubber zijn vloer aan gruzelementen. Door de opgelopen schade zou hij uiteindelijk de finish niet zien. De stukken vloer die Leclerc achterliet op het circuit, waren reden voor een Safety Car, wat voor de kop van het veld het moment was om de pits op te zoeken voor nieuwe banden. Hamilton en Bottas verruilden hun zachte banden voor medium exemplaren. Verstappen kreeg net als Vettel harde banden onder de auto, maar het team stuurde hem weg op het moment dat Bottas aan kwam rijden, waardoor de twee tegen elkaar aan kwamen in de pitstraat. De Red Bull-coureur kwam wel voor de Fin de pits uit, waarmee hij een plek op de baan had gewonnen, maar zou onherroepelijk bestraft worden voor een 'unsafe release'. Ruim tien ronden later kwam de beslissing van de stewards: een vijf seconden tijdstraf die bij zijn eerstvolgende bezoek aan de pits diende te worden ingelost, of aan het einde van de wedstrijd bij zijn racetijd zou worden opgeteld. Verstappen was na het opheffen van de neutralisatie dicht achter Hamilton blijven rijden. De wereldkampioen begon al snel te mopperen over de staat van zijn medium banden, waardoor de jonge Limburger ondanks zijn penalty nog niet helemaal kansloos leek voor de overwinning. De Brit maakte herhaaldelijk over de boordradio duidelijk dat zijn banden eraan waren en zette op een bepaald moment openlijk vraagtekens bij het besluit van zijn team om bij de pitstops naar de medium banden te wisselen in plaats van naar de harde, zoals Verstappen en Vettel hadden gedaan. Een extra bandenwissel zou echter welhaast zeker betekenen dat hij de race niet zou winnen. Regen zou uitkomst bieden voor Hamilton, maar het bleef slechts bij enkele druppels. Verstappen kon zo ronde na ronde de druk er vol op houden bij de Mercedes-coureur. De Nederlander wist ondertussen dat hij naast het podium zou eindigen als hij de Brit niet snel voorbij zou gaan en een gaatje zou slaan, aangezien Vettel en Bottas ook dichterbij aan het komen waren. Met nog acht ronden te gaan kreeg Verstappen toestemming om naar een agressievere motorsetting te gaan, waarmee het gevecht pas echt begon. In de hairpin zette hij zijn auto er gelijk naast, om zich daarna terug te moeten laten zakken. Een foutje bij het zwembad gaf Hamilton wat lucht, maar de Red Bull zat binnen de kortste keren weer onder de achtervleugel van de klassementsleider. Drie ronden voor de finish leek Verstappen de Mercedes haast naar beneden te duwen door de hairpin, maar de zilveren auto bleef aan kop. Een ronde later ging Verstappen in de aanval bij het naderen van de Nouvelle Chicane, maar verremde hij zich waardoor de beide kemphanen met de wielen tegen elkaar aankwamen. Zowel Hamilton als Verstappen kon door, waarna de volgorde niet meer veranderde. De regerend wereldkampioen won dus voor Verstappen, die door zijn straf terugviel naar de vierde plaats, achter Vettel en Bottas, die bij zijn aanvaring met Verstappen een lekke band opliep en daardoor een keer extra moest stoppen. Pierre Gasly werd vijfde en kreeg nog een extra punt voor de snelste raceronde, terwijl Carlos Sainz Jr. op gepaste afstand als zesde over de eindstreep kwam. De resterende punten waren voor Daniil Kvyat, Alexander Albon, Daniel Ricciardo, die terrein verloor bij de pitstops, en Romain Grosjean. Over twee weken gaat het [Formule 1-seizoen 2019](https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/schedule/) verder met de Grand Prix van Canada. De uitslag van de Grand Prix van Monaco: |Pos||Coureur||Ronden||Verschil||Punten| |1|| |[Sebastian Vettel](/driver/sebastian-vettel/263302/) [Valtteri Bottas](/driver/valtteri-bottas/269367/) [Max Verstappen](/driver/max-verstappen/273717/) [Pierre Gasly](/driver/pierre-gasly/275778/) [Carlos Sainz Jr.](/driver/carlos-sainz-jr/272164/) [Daniil Kvyat](/driver/daniil-kvyat/272166/) [Alexander Albon](/driver/alexander-albon/278082/) [Daniel Ricciardo](/driver/daniel-ricciardo/265709/) [Romain Grosjean](/driver/romain-grosjean/265688/) [Volledige uitslag](/f1/results/2019/gp-van-monaco-419447/?st=RACE) [ Vorig artikel Hamilton: "Zonder Lauda was ik maar één keer wereldkampioen" ](/f1/news/hamilton-bijdrage-lauda-mercedes-wereldkampioen/4396479/) [ Volgend artikel Verstappen vindt dat hij podiumplaats verdiende in GP van Monaco ](/f1/news/max-verstappen-reactie-grand-prix-van-monaco/4395196/) Beste reacties [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ Formule 1 De meeste overwinningen in F1: Dit zijn de 10 beste coureurs aller tijden ](/f1/news/10-beste-f1-coureurs-ooit-lewis-hamilton-michael-schumacher-en-meer/6869701/) De meeste overwinningen in F1: Dit zijn de 10 beste coureurs aller tijden [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Russell ziet lichtpuntjes ondanks gapend gat naar Red Bull ](/f1/news/george-russell-ziet-lichtpuntjes-ondanks-gapende-gat-red-bull/10629401/) Russell ziet lichtpuntjes ondanks gapend gat naar Red Bull [ Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Upgrade zorgt voor problemen met bouncing, stelt Sainz ](/f1/news/upgrade-problemen-bouncing-carlos-sainz/10629315/) Upgrade zorgt voor problemen met bouncing, stelt Sainz [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk VIDEO: Charles Leclerc vergooit kansen op goed resultaat in F1-kwalificatie ](/f1/news/video-charles-leclerc-vergooit-kansen-goed-resultaat-f1-kwalificatie/10629263/) VIDEO: Charles Leclerc vergooit kansen op goed resultaat in F1-kwalificatie Net binnen [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ F1 Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? ](/f1/news/rijdersrapporten-f1-gp-oostenrijk-wie-krijgt-hoogste-cijfer/10630270/) Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? [ MGP MotoGP Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025 ](/motogp/news/ducati-huidige-crewchief-enea-bastianini-marc-marquez-toewijzen-2025/10630273/) Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025

2019 Spaanse Grand Prix

https://nl.motorsport.com/f1/news/daniel-ricciardo-gridstraf-botsing-daniil-kvyat-azerbeidzjan/4377844/

Ricciardo krijgt gridstraf voor botsing met Kvyat Daniel Ricciardo heeft een gridpenalty van drie plaatsen gekregen voor de volgende race in Spanje voor zijn botsing met Daniil Kvyat in de Grand Prix van Azerbeidzjan. De race was 32 ronden oud toen de Australiër een poging deed om de Rus in te halen bij de derde bocht van het stratencircuit. De Renault-coureur dook aan de binnenkant, maar blokkeerde vervolgens zijn wielen waardoor hij rechtdoor schoot. Kvyat had geen andere keuze dan eveneens rechtuit te sturen, waarna hij niet voldoende ruimte meer had om de bocht nog te halen. Ricciardo zette zijn wagen vervolgens in zijn achteruit en botste in de zijkant van de Toro Rosso. Beide coureurs moesten even later opgeven in de pits als gevolg van de schade die zij bij dit moment hadden opgelopen. De stewards namen het incident in onderzoek en besloten Ricciardo drie startplaatsen straf te geven voor de volgende race, die over twee weken plaatsvindt in Spanje. Daarbovenop ontvangt de coureur uit Perth twee strafpunten. Een race schorsing is echter nog ver weg voor hem. Het zijn namelijk zijn eerste twee punten in een periode van twaalf maanden. "Ik zag een gat en besloot ervoor te gaan", blikte Ricciardo tegenover Sky Sports terug op het incident. "Ik had aanvankelijk het gevoel dat het ging lukken, maar vervolgens begonnen mijn wielen te blokkeren en miste ik de bocht. Nadat ik de uitloopzone in was gegaan, had ik waarschijnlijk gewoon iets te veel haast en was ik misschien een beetje in paniek omdat ik het tijdverlies zoveel mogelijk wilde beperken. Dus ik zette de wagen in zijn achteruit en begon te rijden. Ik wist echt niet dat hij er stond. Ik denk dat ik in al mijn haast heb nagelaten om in mijn spiegels te kijken. In mijn poging de schade van mijn eerste fout beperkt te houden maakte ik dus nog een tweede fout. Ik voel me er heel slecht over. Voor het team en voor Dany. Dit was niet cool." Kvyat zei over het moment tegenover onder andere Motorsport.com: "Ik kon niet insturen omdat hij rechtdoor was gegaan, dus dat was erg frusterend. Hij nam me met zich mee en vervolgens reed hij achteruit tegen me aan. De race was daarmee voorbij voor ons, want er was een groot gat ontstaan in mijn vloer. De wagen was onbestuurbaar geworden, waardoor we de race moesten verlaten." De Rus heeft reeds excuses gekregen van zijn voormalig teamgenoot. "Dat was heel aardig van hem", meent Kvyat. "Hij heeft erkent dat hij fout zat en we laten het nu achter ons." [ Vorig artikel Vettel: "Maximaal resultaat na slechte eerste stint" ](/f1/news/sebastian-vettel-maximaal-resultaat-baku-ferrari/4377798/) [ Volgend artikel Hamilton kwaad op zichzelf: "Heb het weggegeven in eerste bocht" ](/f1/news/lewis-hamilton-reactie-grand-prix-azerbeidzjan/4377683/) Beste reacties [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Verliest Pérez meer dan vorige teamgenoten Max Verstappen? 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Dit zeggen de F1-data [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Tsunoda spint in SQ1 en beschadigt VCARB 01: "Mijn eigen schuld" ](/f1/news/check-kan-live-tsunoda-spint-in-sq1-en-beschadigt-vcarb-01-mijn-eigen-schuld/10628729/) Tsunoda spint in SQ1 en beschadigt VCARB 01: "Mijn eigen schuld" [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk RB over dilemma Ricciardo-Lawson: "Onze plicht om coureurs te ontwikkelen" ](/f1/news/rb-dilemma-daniel-ricciardo-liam-lawson-plicht-coureurs-ontwikkelen/10628592/) RB over dilemma Ricciardo-Lawson: "Onze plicht om coureurs te ontwikkelen" [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Flinke boete voor Tsunoda wegens taalgebruik over boordradio ](/f1/news/flinke-boete-yuki-tsunoda-taalgebruik-boordradio-/10629494/) Flinke boete voor Tsunoda wegens taalgebruik over boordradio [ Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Ricciardo over onzekere toekomst bij RB F1: "Moet het op de baan laten zien" ](/f1/news/daniel-ricciardo-onzekere-toekomst-rb-f1-moet-op-baan-laten-zien/10627937/) Ricciardo over onzekere toekomst bij RB F1: "Moet het op de baan laten zien" [ Formule 1 Wat te doen met Lawson: Nieuwe tweespalt bij Red Bull? ](/f1/news/liam-lawson-in-beeld-vervanger-daniel-ricciardo/10627784/) Wat te doen met Lawson: Nieuwe tweespalt bij Red Bull? Net binnen [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging ](/f1/news/foutieve-inhaalactie-straf-vloerschade-wat-bij-lewis-hamilton-mis-ging/10630297/) Foutieve inhaalactie, straf, vloerschade: Wat er bij Hamilton allemaal mis ging [ F1 Formule 1 Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord ](/f1/news/alpine-f1-nieuwe-aanwinsten-red-bull-ferrari/10630374/) Alpine F1 haalt nieuwe aanwinsten van Red Bull en Ferrari aan boord [ F1 Formule 1 GP van Oostenrijk Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? ](/f1/news/rijdersrapporten-f1-gp-oostenrijk-wie-krijgt-hoogste-cijfer/10630270/) Rapportcijfers F1 GP van Oostenrijk: Wie krijgt het hoogste cijfer? [ MGP MotoGP Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025 ](/motogp/news/ducati-huidige-crewchief-enea-bastianini-marc-marquez-toewijzen-2025/10630273/) Ducati wijst huidige crewchief Bastianini toe aan Márquez voor 2025

2019 Spaanse Grand Prix

https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/russell-gearbox-change-penalty-spanish-gp/4385953/

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2019 Spaanse Grand Prix

https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/russell-gearbox-change-penalty-spanish-gp/4385953/

Latest news [ NASCAR XFINITY Chicago Street Course Joey Logano to fill in for Hailie Deegan in Chicago NASCAR Xfinity race ](/nascar-xs/news/joey-logano-to-fill-in-for-hailie-deegan-in-chicago-nascar-xfinity-race/10630464/) Joey Logano to fill in for Hailie Deegan in Chicago NASCAR Xfinity race [ Formula 1 Austrian GP F1 2025 driver line-up: Who's on the Formula 1 grid next year? ](/f1/news/f1-2025-driver-line-up/10630437/) F1 2025 driver line-up: Who's on the Formula 1 grid next year? [ IndyCar Andretti Global rules out adding part-time IndyCar entry for Pourchaire ](/indycar/news/andretti-global-indycar-entry-theo-pourchaire/10630457/) Andretti Global rules out adding part-time IndyCar entry for Pourchaire [ IMSA Mosport Albuquerque steps down to LMP2 for overall IMSA victory bid at Mosport ](/imsa/news/albuquerque-united-for-overall-imsa-victory-bid/10630450/) Albuquerque steps down to LMP2 for overall IMSA victory bid at Mosport Latest videos [ 04:32 GT World Challenge Europe Endurance ](/gtwce-endurance/video/crowdstrike-2024-24-hours-of-spa-highlights/652760/) CrowdStrike 2024 24 hours of Spa - Highlights CrowdStrike 2024 24 hours of Spa - Highlights [ 01:45 NASCAR Cup ](/nascar-cup/video/zane-smith-need-to-put-some-more-of-these-weekends-together-after-runner-up-at-nashville/652756/) Zane Smith: 'Need to put some more of these weekends together' after runner-up at Nashville Zane Smith: 'Need to put some more of these weekends together' after runner-up at Nashville [ 44:00 Formula 1 ](/f1/video/f1-austrian-gp-analysis-never-give-up-vs-never-back-down/652751/) F1 Austrian GP Analysis - Never Give Up VS Never Back Down F1 Austrian GP Analysis - Never Give Up VS Never Back Down [ 02:37 Formula 1 ](/f1/video/ollie-bearmans-hot-lap-with-his-dad-in-the-ferrari-296-gtb/652742/) Ollie Bearman's Hot Lap with his Dad in the Ferrari 296 GTB Ollie Bearman's Hot Lap with his Dad in the Ferrari 296 GTB

New South Africa Party

https://www.newsaparty.co.za/our-vision

Our Vision THIS COULD CHANGE THE COURSE OF HUMANITY …… OUR PLAN TO ERADICATE UNEMPLOYMENT, CRIME AND SOCIAL EVILS AIMS TO CREATE A SAFE AND PROSPEROUS SOUTH AFRICA! PART 1: The New South Africa Party aims to implement the SOBER SERVICE GRANT: SSG Every Man And Woman Who Is Unemployed And Also Everyone Earning Less Than R 2000 A Month May Apply To Receive The SS Grant - Which Could Be In The Form Of Food Coupons. WE WILL PHASE OUT THE CHILD GRANT WHILE PHASING IN THE SOBER SERVICE GRANT All children currently receiving the child grant will continue to receive the grant until the age of 18. But no new applications will be processed. THE SOBER SERVICE GRANT WILL BE PHASED IN UNDER THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS: - In order to receive this grant, you need to be sober from Gangsterism and drugs and not be alcoholic - You will have to render a service to the state; approx. 20 hours per month; this will be rendered in the community where you live - You can choose one of the following areas in which to render your service: Ie. Safety, coaching, gardening, cleaning, repairs, etc. To Follow OUR VISION PART 2 How the cancer of corruption must be fixed; the problem of service delivery; the problem of non-permanent / contract work and labour brokers OUR VISION PART 3 The housing dilemma: 4 million people living in informal dwellings!

Uniting People First

https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2017-11-27-by-election-preview-all-eyes-on-the-big-contest-in-metsimaholo-free-state/

A significant by-election will take place in Metsimaholo on Wednesday. For one thing, the SACP have decided to go it alone in this by-election – standing against the ANC. By WAYNE SUSSMAN. While South Africans were transfixed on the results of the metros in early August 2016, it soon emerged that the ANC not only ran the risk of losing power in Nelson Mandela Bay, Tshwane, Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni, but also in smaller municipalities in Limpopo, Free State and the North West. One of those municipalities was Metsimaholo in the Free State. I flagged Metsimaholo as a municipality to watch when the ANC won less than 60% of the vote in the national elections in 2014. I remember visiting Zamdela next to Sasolburg just before the election, and seeing some buzz about a local party, the Metsimaholo Community Association (MCA). This was also a municipality where the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) seemed to be denting the ANC in its stronghold areas. The ANC finished as the biggest party here but fell three seats short of an outright majority, winning 19/42 seats. |Party||Seats| |ANC||19| |DA||12| |EFF||8| |MCA||2| |Vryheids Front + (VF+)||1| It was always clear that the DA would get the backing of the VF+. The EFF would eventually give their outside support to the opposition. Sello Hlasa of the MCA knew that he did not have the numbers to get the ANC over the line, and did a deal with the other opposition parties. Although only winning two seats, he would be the new Mayor of Metsimaholo. His party formed a coalition with the DA and the VF+, and the EFF voted for him to form the new government in Metsimaholo. It was a rocky and short-lived marriage. Hlasa's coalition partners found him to be more loyal to the ANC, then the coalition in general and his own party in particular. His party could not oust him, and the rudderless coalition failed to pass a budget. The municipality was dissolved and new elections were called. Where on the map? Metsimaholo has a strong attachment to the Vaal. It is in the Free State, and its largest town is Sasolburg, which includes the township of Zamdela. It also includes Deneysville which is near the Vaal Dam and the village of Oranjeville. There are 15 parties contesting this by-election. These include little known parties such as Uniting People First, who seeks to be the voice for traditional healers and the LGBTI community. There is also Power of African Unity, a party lead by a former Congress of the People (Cope) activist. They are not the most talked about electoral newcomers in this by election. The South African Communist Party (SACP) have decided to go it alone in this by election, and will be standing against the ANC instead of with the ANC. The SACP has long threatened to do so, and Wednesday will be an opportunity for us to see how much attraction the SACP holds for this particular electorate. They have campaigned hard here and will aim to hold the balance of power when the new council gets formed. Another party which could fancy its chances of entering the council is the Forum 4 Service Delivery (F4SD), a party with roots in North West. They got 23% of the vote in a crowded field in a by-election earlier in the year in Ward 12. Their candidate was the incumbent councillor who defected from the ANC. They also carried one of the voting districts. I don't see any other party having a chance of entering the council. The party which will struggle the most in this election should be the MCA. There was much internal squabbling in the party, and besides getting the endorsement from former ANC MP Makhosi Khoza, the party will struggle to hold on to its two seats. The ANC received 40,491 votes here in 2016. The ANC received more than 14,000 votes ahead of the next biggest party in Metsimaholo in 2016. The ANC will hope to neuter the SACP, and get former ANC voters who supported the EFF and the MCA in 2016 back to the ANC. If the ANC were to win Metsimaholo outright, Ace Magashule would have the double delight of putting the rebellious SACP in its place and raising his profile for the party's elective conference in December. The ANC also needs to ensure that its supporters have the same kind of enthusiasm as the DA supporters did in 2016. The ANC will focus on getting the voters out where it is the strongest; these include Ward 4 (Refenkgotso Phomolong) where it got 70% of the vote, and Ward 2 (Zamdela Extension 3) where it got 69% of the vote. The DA ran up the numbers in their strongholds in 2016. In places like Sasolburg North, Vaal Park and Barrage they got their supporters to the polls and won their strongholds by a far greater margin than the ANC won theirs. The DA will also want to ensure that more conservative voters stick with the DA on Wednesday and do not give their vote to the VF+. At the same time, the DA would prefer to work with the VF+ then the hammer and sickle of the SACP. The EFF have had a torrid few months on the by-election front. There have been very few by-elections in areas where they have significant pockets of support. They are finally contesting on more favourable terrain. They got over 30% of the votes in two wards in 2016, and will put a lot of energy in Ward 3 (Refengkgotso Deneysville) where they got 795 votes to the ANC's 1,172. They need to finish the year on a by-election here, and them keeping the ANC under 50% and maintaining or increasing their allocation of seats on the council can help achieve that. The VF+ only has one seat on the council. They will be concerned about the prospects of the SACP and the solid showing of the F4SD in the by-election in the municipality earlier in the year. They know they are vulnerable, but they also know that they have a path to growth with aggrieved DA voters. Vulnerable Wards The most vulnerable wards are held by the ANC. |Ward No.||Area||ANC %||DA %||EFF %||MCA %||F4SD %| |12||Boiketlong||31||5||24||16||23| |20||Refenkgotoso Kragbron||44||38||13||2| |3||Refengkgotso Deneysville||55||4||37||3| |10||Zamdela Extension 3||52||6||31||10| Other Contests [ There are three other by-elections on Wednesday. The ANC will defend an ultra safe in the rural Eastern Cape in the Nyandeni municipality (Libode). On paper, the DA are defending the safest seat of the night, in the City of Cape Town in Brackenfell and Kraaifontein. The challenge for the DA is that the incumbent is a political veteran who is relatively well known, and resigned from the DA and then defected to the conservative CAPE Party. The most exciting of the by-elections beyond Metsimaholo on Wednesday is in Kwazulu-Natal in uMlalazi (Eshowe). This is a competitive seat where the ANC got 57% to the IFP's 40%. This is the last by-election in KZN this year and a win here by the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) could be a nice Christmas present for the soon-to-be-retiring Mangosuthu Buthelezi. DM] Photo: Hundreds of people queue to take part in the 2014 general elections in Diepsloot. (Photo: GCIS)

Kaapse Onafhanklikheids Party

http://www.polity.org.za/print-version/final-list-of-parties-to-contest-the-2009-elections-11032009-2009-03-11

Final List of Parties to contest the 2009 Elections NATIONAL 2009 1. A Party 2. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 3. African National Congress (ANC) 4. African People's Convention (APC) 5. Al Jama AH 6. Alliance of Free Democrats (AFD) 7. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 8. Christian Democratic Alliance (CDA) 9. Congress of the People (COPE) 10. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 11. Great Kongress of SA (GKSA) 12. Independent Democrats (ID) 13. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 14. Keep it Straight and Simple (KISS) 15. Minority Front (MF) 16. Movement Democratic Party (MDP) 17. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 18. New Vision Party (NVP) 19. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 20. Pan Africanist Movement (PAM) 21. South African Democratic Congress (SADECO) 22. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 23. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 24. United Independent Front (UIF) 25. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) 26. Women Forward (WF) EASTERN CAPE 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African Independent Congress (AIC) 3. African National Congress (ANC) 4. African People's Convention (APC) 5. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 6. Christian Democratic Alliance (CDA) 7. Congress of the People (COPE) 8. Democratic Alliance/Demokraties Alliansie (DA) 9. Independent Democrats (ID) 10. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 11. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 12. New Vision Party (NVP) 13. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 14. Pan Africanist Movement (PAM) 15. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 16. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 17. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) FREE STATE 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African National Congress (ANC) 3. African People's Convention (APC) 4. Congress of the People (COPE) 5. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 6. Dikwankwetla Party of South Africa (DPSA) 7. Independent Democrats (ID) 8. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 9. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 10. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 11. Peace and Justice Congress (PJC) 12. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 13. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 14. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) GAUTENG 2009 1. African Christian Alliance-Afrikaner Christen Alliansie (ACA) 2. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 3. African National Congress (ANC) 4. African People's Convention (APC) 5. Alliance of Free Democrats (AFD) 6. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 7. Christian Democratic Alliance (CDA) 8. Congress of the People (COPE) 9. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 10. Great Kongress of SA (GKSA) 11. Independent Democrats (ID) 12. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 13. Movement Democratic Party (MDP) 14. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 15. New Vision Party (NVP) 16. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 17. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 18. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 19. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) 20. Women Forward (WF) KWAZULU-NATAL 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African National Congress (ANC) 3. African People's Convention (APC) 4. Al Jama-ah (No Abbreviation) 5. Congress of the People (COPE) 6. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 7. Great Kongress of SA (GKSA) 8. Independent Democrats (ID) 9. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10. Minority Front (MF) 11. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 12. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 13. South African Democratic Congress (SADECO) 14. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 15. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 16. Vryheidsfront (VF Plus) 17. Women Forward (WF) LIMPOPO 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African National Congress (ANC) 3. African People's Convention (APC) 4. Alliance of Free Democrats (AFD) 5. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 6. Black Consciousness Party (BCP) 7. Congress of the People (COPE) 8. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 9. Independent Democrats (ID) 10. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 11. New Vision Party (NVP) 12. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 13. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 14. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 15. United Independent Front (UIF) 16. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) 17. Women Forward (WF) 18. Ximoko Party (XP) MPUMALANGA 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African National Congress (ANC) 3. African People's Convention (APC) 4. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 5. Christen Party/Christian Party (CP) 6. Congress of the People (COPE) 7. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 8. Independent Democrats (ID) 9. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 11. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 12 Sindawonye Progressive Party (SPP) 13. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 14. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 15. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) NORTH WEST 2009 1. African Christian Alliance-Afrikaner Christen Alliansie (ACA) 2. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 3. African National Congress (ANC) 4. African People's Convention (APC) 5. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 6. Congress of the People (COPE) 7. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 8. Independent Democrats (ID) 9. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10. Movement Democratic Party (MDP) 11. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 12. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 13. South Africa Political Party (SAPP) 14. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 15. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 16. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) NORTHERN CAPE 2009 1. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 2. African National Congress (ANC) 3. African People's Convention (APC) 4. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 5. Christian Democratic Alliance (CDA) 6. Congress of the People (COPE) 7. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 8. Independent Democrats (ID) 9. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 10. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 11. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 12. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 13. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus) WESTERN CAPE 2009 1. Africa Muslim Party (AMP) 2. African Christian Democratic Party (ACDP) 3. African National Congress (ANC) 4. African People's Convention (APC) 5. Al Jama-ah (No Abbreviation) 6. Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) 7. Cape Party/Kaapse Party (CAPE) 8. Christian Democratic Alliance (CDA) 9. Congress of the People (COPE) 10. Democratic Alliance/Demokratiese Alliansie (DA) 11. Independent Democrats (ID) 12. Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) 13. National Alliance (NA) 14. National Democratic Convention (NADECO) 15. National Party South Africa (NP) 16. Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) 17. Peace and Justice Congress (PJC) 18. United Christian Democratic Party (UCDP) 19. United Democratic Movement (UDM) 20. United Independent Front (UIF) 21. Universal Party (U.P.) 22. Vryheidsfront Plus (VF Plus)

Kaapse Onafhanklikheids Party

http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71619?oid=126884&sn=Detail

Provincial election results - Western Cape | | Parties | | Votes | | Percent | | Seats | | Percent--> | | AMP | | 4,333 | | 0.22% | | 0--> | | 0% | | ACDP | | 28,995 | | 1.47%--> | | 1 | | 2.38% | | ANC | | 620,918--> | | 31.55% | | 14 | | 33.33% | | APC | | 1,778 | | 0.09% | | 0 | | 0% | | AL JAMAH | | 9,039 | | 0.46% | | 0 | | 0% | | AZAPO | | 1,291 | | 0.07% | | 0 | | 0% | | CAPE PARTY | | 2,552 | | 0.13% | | 0 | | 0% | | CDA | | 3,987 | | 0.20% | | 0 | | 0% | | COPE | | 152,356 | | 7.74% | | 3 | | 7.14% | | DA | | 1,012,568 | | 51.46% | | 22 | | 52.38% | | ID | | 92,116 | | 4.68% | | 2 | | 4.76% | | IFP | | 1,158 | | 0.06% | | 0 | | 0% | | NA | | 1,996 | | 0.10% | | 0 | | 0% | | NDC | | 463 | | 0.02% | | 0 | | 0% | | NPSA | | 3,378 | | 0.17% | | 0 | | 0% | | PAC | | 4,467 | | 0.23% | | 0 | | 0% | | PJC | | 630 | | 0.03% | | 0 | | 0% | | UCDP | | 1,552 | | 0.08% | | 0 | | 0% | | UDM | | 14,013 | | 0.71% | | 0 | | 0% | | UIF | | 1,178 | | 0.06% | | 0 | | 0% | | UP | | 599 | | 0.03% | | 0 | | 0% | | FF+ | | 8,384 | | 0.43% | | 0 | | 0% | | Total | | 1,967,751 | | 100.00% | | 42 | | 100.00% | | Registered voters | | 2,634,439 | | | | | | | | Total votes counted | | 1,987,777 | | | | | | | | % all voters | | 75.45% | | | | | | Click [here](/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71674) to sign up to receive our free daily headline email newsletter

Lera Auerbach

http://www.zeit.de/kultur/musik/2009-09/lera-auerbach/

ZEIT ONLINE: Frau Auerbach, moderne klassische Musik hat es schwer zwischen den Vier Jahreszeiten und der Eroica. Wie erwecken Sie Interesse für Ihre Werke? Lera Auerbach: Leidenschaft schafft Leidenschaft. Ich denke, moderne klassische Musik ist sehr aufregend. Wenn Zuhörer Konzerte erleben, die spannend sind und sich mit ihren Gefühlen direkt verbinden, wird ihr Interesse geweckt. Ich hoffe, dass meine Arbeit die Kraft in sich trägt, eine Verbindung zu meiner Generation herzustellen. ZEIT ONLINE: Wenn Sie ein neues Stück komponieren, wissen Sie dann schon von Anfang an, wie das gesamte Werk aussehen soll? Auerbach: Für gewöhnlich habe ich zuerst nur eine abstrakte Vorstellung in meinem Kopf. Dann beginne ich, eine grobe Skizze des gesamten Werkes anzufertigen, um die Idee so schnell wie möglich in Umrissen zu fixieren, ohne mich zu sehr um die Details zu kümmern. Wenn die Form vorhanden ist, kann ich damit beginnen, sie zu füllen. ZEIT ONLINE: Woher nehmen Sie die oft schockierende Ausdruckskraft Ihrer Werke? Auerbach: Ich möchte mich mit meiner Musik so aufrichtig wie möglich an die Zuhörer wenden. Jemand bat mich kürzlich, meine Musik in einem einzigen Wort zu beschreiben. Zuerst dachte ich, das sei eine verrückte Bitte. Als ich aber dann darüber nachdachte, fiel mir das Wort ein: angstfrei. Ich möchte mit meiner Musik einen Raum schaffen, in dem sich die Menschen ohne Angst bewegen können. ZEIT ONLINE: Ihre Musik speist sich aus ganz unterschiedlichen Quellen und ist dabei doch sehr eigenständig. In welcher musikalischen Traditionslinie sehen Sie sich? Auerbach: Alfred Schnittke war einer der Komponisten, der mich in Beziehung zur Polystilistik brachte. Polystilistik bedeutet die Freiheit, mit allen musikalischen Epochen und Bedeutungen zu spielen, um dein Ziel zu erreichen, und es gibt keine Begrenzungen dafür, was du tun kannst. Wir besitzen heute mehr Information über die musikalische Tradition als jemals zuvor. Es gibt keinen Grund, etwas nicht zu verknüpfen und in seinem Käfig zu belassen. Ich kann aus allen Quellen schöpfen, die ich liebe, und diese in meine eigene Tonsprache integrieren. ZEIT ONLINE: Gehören dazu auch Quellen wie Pop- und Weltmusik? Auerbach: Ich bin definitiv offen für ganz verschiedene musikalische Einflüsse. Ich verschließe mich nicht, sondern halte meine Ohren offen, und ich liebe es, mit anderen Kulturen konfrontiert zu werden. Dabei habe ich das Gefühl, dass diese Strömungen mich darin bereichern zu sehen, was Musik alles sein kann. Ich denke, das einzig wichtige Kriterium ist das Talent, egal, ob die Musik nun aus dem Popbereich oder aus der Tradition der Volksmusik kommt. ZEIT ONLINE: Ist das ein Plädoyer gegen den Mainstream? ZEIT ONLINE: Frau Auerbach, moderne klassische Musik hat es schwer zwischen den Vier Jahreszeiten und der Eroica. Wie erwecken Sie Interesse für Ihre Werke? Lera Auerbach: Leidenschaft schafft Leidenschaft. Ich denke, moderne klassische Musik ist sehr aufregend. Wenn Zuhörer Konzerte erleben, die spannend sind und sich mit ihren Gefühlen direkt verbinden, wird ihr Interesse geweckt. Ich hoffe, dass meine Arbeit die Kraft in sich trägt, eine Verbindung zu meiner Generation herzustellen. ZEIT ONLINE: Wenn Sie ein neues Stück komponieren, wissen Sie dann schon von Anfang an, wie das gesamte Werk aussehen soll?

Lera Auerbach

http://www.feminaerecords.com/releases/accompanying-herself-works-for-solo-violin-by-women-composers/

buy CD and downloads at [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01KDAZGRS/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=feminrecor-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01KDAZGRS) buy album and tracks at [Apple Music](https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/accompanying-herself-works/id1149043782?uo=4) buy album and tracks at [Google Play](https://play.google.com/store/music/album/Aleksandra_Maslovaric_Accompanying_Herself_Works_f?id=Bnfbt4nlxf6c6gsjl4y6trjrx7u&hl=en) stream the album at [Napster](http://us.napster.com/artist/aleksandra-maslovaric/album/accompanying-herself-works-for-solo-violin-by-women-composer) A collection of music from 9 different composers, continuing a mission of uncovering and sharing these hidden gems with music lovers the world over. Violinist [Aleksandra Maslovaric](http://aleksandramaslovaric.com/) performs timeless works by composers Lera Auerbach, Grazyna Bacewicz, Henriette Bosmans, Deon Nielsen Price, Hedda Seischab, Jeannine Richer, Pauline Viardot, and Diane Warren, plus three of her own compositions for solo violin. Firstly, I would like to thank everybody who has joined this mission of acknowledging women composers, with special thanks to the classical radio hosts and programmers all over the world who have had the courage to explore something beyond the standard repertoire with their audiences. When I decided to make a solo album, a big change from the previous concerto, I also saw it as an opportunity to take liberties with the repertoire a bit. I'd long admired the works of nineteenth century superstar Pauline Viardot and present‐day superstar Diane Warren, and hope that these arrangements for solo violin capture some of the passion of their original songs. Likewise, I hope that you share my excitement with the diversity of works on this album. From Bacewicz's fireworks, the classic form of Bosmans, and the anciently inspired harmonies by Price, to the modern playfulness and soulfulness from Seischab, Auerbach, and Richer. I suggest that the future of concert music may lie in expanding the repertoire beyond the B boys, and embracing the compositional voices of women. —Aleksandra Ringelspiel Composed by Aleksandra Maslovaric She Scores (ASCAP), Los Angeles, 2016 Titled after the classic carrousel ride and the feeling of returning to something that you love, Aleksandra composed Ringelspiel at her Los Angeles home in 2016. Polish Caprice Composed by Grazyna Bacewicz (1909–1969) PWM Edition, Kraków Poland, 1950 While her initial professional success was as an orchestral and solo violinist, today Bacewicz is perhaps best known as a groundbreaking composer of symphonic and chamber works. At the time of her death in 1969, the catalog of publishing house Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne included more compositions of hers than of any other composer, including Frédéric Chopin. Included here, Polish Caprice for solo violin was composed in 1946. Cadenzen voor Mozart's Vioolconcerten Composed by Henriette Bosmans (1895–1952) Broekmans & Van Poppel, Amsterdam, 1934 Henriette Bosmans was born in Amsterdam into a musical family, with her father working as principal cellist of the Concertgebouw Orchestra, and her mother a concert pianist and professor at the Amsterdam Conservatory. A well‐ respected pianist herself, by the age of 25, Henriette began regularly appearing as a solo pianist with the Concertgebouw Orchestra. Her compositions include several concertos for solo instrument and orchestra. Included here as tracks 4 and 5 respectively are her cadenzas for the first and second movements of Mozart's Violin Concerto in G Major. Since 1994, the Society of Dutch Composers has awarded the Henriette Bosmans Prize to talented young Dutch composers. 67 Moons Composed by Aleksandra Maslovaric She Scores (ASCAP), Los Angeles, 2016 Originally composed for the forthcoming video game Jupiter Halo, created by Big Kidd Games for the Xbox and PC platforms. Dancing with Oneself Composed by Lera Auerbach Musikverlag Hans Sikorski GmbH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2006 Lera Auerbach was born in Soviet Russia, and defected to the United States while on a concert tour in 1991. An active piano soloist and composer, her compositions to date feature numerous orchestral works including a commission by the Royal Danish Ballet. Dancing with Oneself is the first movement of six of the Lonely Suite, a Ballet for a Lonely Violinist. The piece was premiered by Vadim Gluzman in San Francisco in 2004. Rupture Composed by Jeannine Richer Éditions Max Eschig, Paris, 1993 The enigmatic Jeannine Richer was born in France in the early twentieth century, and became a professor at the famed École Normale de Musique de Paris. Her published compositions consist primarily of instrumental works. Rupture is dedicated to Soryanna. Interruptions Composed by Aleksandra Maslovaric She Scores (ASCAP), Los Angeles, 2015 Premiering on this album, Interruptions was inspired by the constant directional shifts we encounter as we attempt to pursue meaning. Tarentelle Composed by Pauline Viardot (1821–1910), arr. A. Maslovaric Brandus et Cie, Paris, 1850 Born in Paris into a family of professional Spanish musicians, Michelle Ferdinande Pauline García Viardot became one of the most respected singers of her time. While not considering herself a composer, Viardot's works include operettas, choral works, instrumental chamber music, and many, many songs. Arranged here for solo violin by Maslovaric, Tarentelle was originally written as a song for voice and piano, and dedicated to Viardot's cousin, singer Madame Antonia Léonard (née Mendes) who had performed across Europe with Viardot. T'filah Composed by Lera Auerbach Musikverlag Hans Sikorski GmbH & Co. KG, Hamburg, 2006 Composed in 1996, and premiered in 2003 by violinist Vadim Guzman, T'filah, translating as "Prayer" for violin solo, was described as a reaction to the tragedy of the Holocaust. I Learned From the Best Composed by Diane Warren, arr. A. Maslovaric Realsongs (ASCAP), 1998 While her name may still be unfamiliar to some audiences, Grammy award‐winning American composer Diane Warren's songs, including mega hits performed by Beyoncé, Gloria Estefan, and Barbra Streisand to name just a few, are certainly well known. This piece was originally released by superstar Whitney Houston. Verwandlungen Composed by Hedda Seischab Waldkauz Verlag, 2008 An active musician, teacher, critic, and composer, Hedda Seischab is based in Reutlingen, Germany. Verwandlungen, translating in English to "Transformations", is comprised of five related brief movements presented on track 12, and a second tale, theme, and eight variations presented together on track 13. Stile Antico, Tonos Composed by Deon Nielsen Price Culver Crest Publications (ASCAP), 1990 An American pianist, composer, conductor, educator, and author, Dr. Deon Nielsen Price's compositions include large orchestral works and concertos, and intimate chamber music. Stile Antico, referring to the ancient styles which inspired the work, was originally composed circa 1975 for solo cello, and arranged for solo violin in 1990. Included here, Tonos is the second movement and "refers to ancient Greek diatonic tetrachords which form the basis for folklike melodies." Madrid Composed by Pauline Viardot (1821–1910), arr. A. Maslovaric Heugel, Paris, 1887 Never considered a beauty, Pauline Viardot's talent, charm, and wit helped her establish and maintain relationships with the likes of George Sand, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Hector Berlioz, Clara Schumann, and Ivan Turgenev. Another arrangement for solo violin by Maslovaric, Madrid was originally written as a song for voice and piano, with lyrics by one‐time suitor Alfred de Musset, and dedicated to the opera singer Mademoiselle Mathilde de Nogueiras, a former pupil and eventually Viardot's final caretaker. All tracks: Performed by Aleksandra Maslovaric, violin Recorded by Leslie Ann Jones at Skywalker Sound, a Lucasfilm, Ltd. company. Marin County, CA assisted by Dann Thompson May 25, 2016 Mastered by Michael Romanowski at Coast Mastering, Berkeley, CA Produced by Jonathan Shephard and Aleksandra Maslovaric

Johannes Wildner

http://professionals.klassik.com/karriere/details.cfm?ID=1189

Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Wien Johannes Wildner . Der Dirigent Johannes Wildner folgt einem Ruf auf den Lehrstuhl für Dirigieren der Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Wien. Er tritt die Professur im Oktober an. Johannes Wildner absolvierte eine Violinausbildung am Konservatorium Wien, studierte Dirigieren an der Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Wien, unter anderem bei Karl Österreicher und Othmar Suitner, sowie in Parma (Italien). Ein Studium der Musikwissenschaft an der Universität Wien schloss er mit der Promotion (Dr. phil.) ab. Ehe er eine Karriere als Dirigent einschlug, war er zehn Jahre lang Mitglied der Wiener Philharmoniker (1985-1995) und des Orchesters der Wiener Staatsoper. Er war Chefdirigent der Prager Staatsoper (1994-95), Erster Ständiger Dirigent der Oper Leipzig (1996-98) und Generalmusikdirektor der Neuen Philharmonie Westfalen 1997-2007). Das in Recklinghausen beheimatete Orchester ernannte Wildner im Anschluss zum Ehrendirigenten. Darüber hinaus arbeitete er als Gastdirigent mit zahlreichen internationalen Klangkörpern zusammen, darunter etwa die Philharmonischen Orchester von London und St. Petersburg, das Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks und die Wiener Symphoniker. Seit 2010 wirkt er als Erster Gastdirigent des BBC Concert Orchestra und seit 2013 als Intendant des Opernfestivals Oper Burg Gars. Dieser Beitrag hat Ihnen gefallen? Empfehlen Sie ihn weiter! Lassen Sie's uns wissen... Wer belegt die besten Plätze auf dem Personalkarussell? Wessen Know-How und Talent ist wo gefragt? Wenn Sie selbst Karriere machen, ein-, auf- oder aussteigen - lassen Sie's uns und die Branche wissen. [Schreiben Sie uns](karrieremeldung.cfm). Weitersagen... Diese Karrieremeldung [per Email versenden](/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#645b1711060e0107105937070c0b0a44000517442a01110117100144120b0a442e0b0c050a0a011744330d08000a01164403010c0b0116105b420509145f060b001d590c101014175e4b4b14160b020117170d0b0a0508174a0f080517170d0f4a070b094b0f0516160d0116014b000110050d08174a0702095b2d205955555c5d). Link kopieren für Emailversand oder Instant Message: https://professionals.klassik.com/karriere/details.cfm?ID=1189 Aktuelles Stellenangebot: - [Praktikum in Musik-Redaktion (Online/Print)](../stellenmarkt/stellenangebot.cfm?ID=270&title=Stellenangebot Praktikum in Musik-Redaktion (Online/Print)) Das Musikmagazin klassik.com bietet interessierten StudentInnen die Möglichkeit für ein Praktikum in der Redaktion. [weiter...](../stellenmarkt/stellenangebot.cfm?ID=270&title=Stellenangebot Praktikum in Musik-Redaktion (Online/Print)) [Ihre Werbung bei klassik.com !](https://www.klassik.com/werbung.cfm) Werben Sie in einem hochwertigen, tagesaktuellen journalistischen Umfeld und erreichen Sie mit unserer Hilfe Ihr kulturell interessiertes Publikum in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz.Die wichtigsten Fakten: - online seit 1996 - 71.635 registrierte Leser - 20.348 [Platten- und Buchkritiken](https://magazin.klassik.com/reviews/reviews.cfm) - 15.351 [tagesaktuelle Meldungen](https://magazin.klassik.com/news/) - 4.500 [Veranstaltungskritiken](https://magazin.klassik.com/konzerte/reviews.cfm) - 2.551 [private Kleinanzeigen](https://community.klassik.com/anzeigen/) - 2.885 [Karrieremeldungen](https://professionals.klassik.com/karriere) Künstler über klassik.com ["So ein ausführliches Gespräch wie mit klassik.com wäre in einem anderen Medium überhaupt nicht denkbar."](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/interview.cfm?KID=6100) [Jean-Efflam Bavouzet](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/interview.cfm?KID=6100) Jetzt im klassik.com Radio [](https://radio.klassik.com) [Henri Bertini](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/template.cfm?KID=1755): [Grand Trio op.43 in A major](https://magazin.klassik.com/records/teaser.cfm?RECID=37873)- Rondo. Allegro Portrait [](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/interview_aot.cfm?IPID=327) ["Schumann ist so tiefgreifend, dass er den Herzensgrund erreicht."](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/interview_aot.cfm?IPID=327) Die Pianistin Jimin-Oh Havenith im Gespräch mit klassik.com. [weiter...](https://portraits.klassik.com/people/interview_aot.cfm?IPID=327) [Alle Interviews...](https://magazin.klassik.com/feature/) Sponsored Links [Opernreisen und Musikreisen bei klassikreisen.de](http://www.klassikreisen.de) [Konzertpublikum](http://www.konzertpublikum.de) [Musikunterricht](https://community.klassik.com/musikunterricht/) [klassik.com Radio](https://radio.klassik.com) [Urlaub im Schwarzwald](http://www.abtsbergblick.de) [Neue Musikzeitung](http://www.nmz.de) [StageKit](http://www.stagekit.com)- Websites für Musiker, Veranstalter und Konzertagenturen

Roman Ingarden

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ingarden/

Roman Ingarden Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl's from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl's turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem, Ingarden developed ontological studies unmatched in scope and detail, distinguishing different kinds of dependence and different modes of being. He is best known, however, for his work in aesthetics, particularly on the ontology of the work of art and the status of aesthetic values, and is credited with being the founder of phenomenological aesthetics. His work The Literary Work of Art has been widely influential in literary theory as well as philosophical aesthetics, and has been crucial to the development of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory. [1. Life and Work](#LifeWork) [2. Ontology and Metaphysics](#OntoMeta) [3. Aesthetics](#Aest) [Bibliography](#Bib) [Academic Tools](#Aca) [Other Internet Resources](#Oth) [Related Entries](#Rel) 1. Life and Work Roman Witold Ingarden was born on February 5, 1893 in Kraków. He initially studied mathematics and philosophy in Lwów (now known as 'Lviv' and in Ukraine), and in 1912 went to Göttingen where he studied philosophy under Edmund Husserl, taking four semesters of seminars with Husserl, from 1912 to 1914, and again during the summer of 1915. Husserl considered Ingarden one of his best students, and the two remained in close touch until Husserl's death in 1938 (their philosophical correspondence was eventually published as Husserl's Briefe an Roman Ingarden). Ingarden also studied philosophy in Lwów with Kazimierz Twardowski (who, like Husserl, was a student of Franz Brentano). When Husserl accepted the chair at Freiburg, Ingarden followed him, submitting his dissertation "Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson" in 1917, for which he received his Ph.D. in 1918, with Husserl as director. After submitting his dissertation, Ingarden returned to Poland for the remainder of his academic career, first teaching mathematics, psychology and philosophy in secondary schools while he worked on his Habilitationschrift. That work, published as Essentiale Fragen in 1925, attracted some attention in the English speaking philosophical world, being reviewed twice in Mind (by A.C. Ewing in 1926 and by Gilbert Ryle in 1927). With the publication of his Habilitationschrift, Ingarden was appointed as Privatdozent at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów, where he was promoted to Professor in 1933. During this time his most well known work, The Literary Work of Art, was first published (1931, in German), followed by The Cognition of the Literary Work (1936, in Polish). His academic career was interrupted from 1941–1944, when (due to the war) the university was closed, and he secretly taught philosophy at the university, and mathematics to secondary school children in an orphanage. At the same time (and despite the bombing of his house in Lwów), Ingarden was working intensively on his magnum opus The Controversy over the Existence of the World (the first two volumes of which were published in Polish in 1947 and 1948 respectively). In 1945 he moved to Jagiellonian University in Kraków, where he was given a chair in 1946, however in 1949, (under Stalinization) he was banned from teaching because of his alleged "idealism" (ironically, a philosophical position against which Ingarden fought for most of his life) and for being an "enemy of materialism". The ban continued until 1957, at which point Ingarden was reappointed to his post at Jagiellonian University, where he taught until his retirement in 1963 and continued to write, publishing such works as The Ontology of the Work of Art (1962) and Experience, Artwork and Value (1969). Ingarden died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage on June 14, 1970, while still fully engaged in his philosophical projects. A careful, detailed, and fully documented account of Ingarden's biography may be found in [Mitscherling, 1997], which also does much to settle the inconsistencies in earlier partial accounts of Ingarden's life. Like many of Husserl's students from the Göttingen period, Ingarden is a realist phenomenologist who ardently resisted Husserl's apparent turn to transcendental idealism in the Ideas and thereafter. Although his training is phenomenological, his work on the whole is directed not towards understanding the basic structures of consciousness, but rather towards ontology. Indeed, Ingarden is one of the foremost practitioners of phenomenological ontology, which attempts to determine what the ontological structure and status of objects of various types must be, based on examining essential features of any experience that could present or provide knowledge of such objects—a method based in the assumption that there are essential correlations between kinds of objects and the modes of cognition by means of which they can be known. Ingarden's best-known works, indeed the only ones known to most of his readers in the English-speaking world, are his works on aesthetics, especially literature—works that offer unrivalledly sophisticated and subtle accounts both of the ontological status of works of art of various kinds, and of our means of cognizing them. His phenomenological approach to aesthetics strongly influenced the work of Michel Dufrennes, and there are also strong resonances between his work on the ontology of art and contemporary analytic work in aesthetics, e.g., by Joseph Margolis, Nelson Goodman and Jerrold Levinson. The Literary Work of Art has been particularly influential in literary studies, where its effects are visible in Wolfgang Kayser's work Das sprachliche Kunstwerk and in the development of the schools of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory in the work of such theorists as René Wellek and Wolfgang Iser, respectively. Nonetheless, the frequently exclusive focus on Ingarden's work in aesthetics is somewhat unfortunate and can be misleading about his overall philosophical focus and goals. For Ingarden produced an enormous body of work on a wide variety of topics. He raised early and important criticisms of what he called "methodological Positivism" in a paper delivered in 1934 to the 8th World Congress of Philosophy in Prague, where Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath were present as respondents. There Ingarden argues that, by the positivist's own lights, 'metalogical' sentences about sentences should be counted as meaningless, since sentences themselves are not mere physical objects (to be sentences they must have a certain sense), and yet the methodological Positivist accepts only sentences about the physical as intersubjectively verifiable. If on the other hand, we do consider sentences to be mere physical 'mounds of ink' or 'sound waves', then they would not be verifiable (this, he seems to be suggesting, would be something like a category mistake: how can one verify a heap of ink?). Moreover, he argues (in what Pelletier and Linsky (2018) identify as a version of the 'Hysteron Proteron Objection') that in order to decide whether a sentence is verifiable, one must first identify its meaning "independently of its verification". The paper is now translated into English as "A Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", and reprinted alongside the brief responses by Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath, and interesting contemporary discussion and evaluation by Pelletier and Linsky (2018), who suggest that Carnap never adequately responded to these criticisms. Ingarden also produced a large body of work in epistemology, ontology, metaphysics, phenomenology, and value theory. The relative obscurity of Ingarden's work in these other areas is attributable in part to the relative isolation and interruption of academic philosophy in Poland in the period of World War Two and Soviet occupation, and in part to language barriers. Before the second world war, Ingarden (being German trained) published his works mainly in German, thus his early works such as The Literary Work of Art appeared in German early in his career, and were to have a broad impact. But during the war, Ingarden (in a gesture of solidarity) switched to writing in Polish, a language speakers of English and other Western European languages were unlikely to read, and so his major works on ontology went largely unnoticed by the wider European and Anglo-American philosophical circles. His major work in ontology, The Controversy, for example, was not translated into German until 1964, and only in 2013 did Part 1 become fully available in English translation (an earlier partial translation was published in 1964 as Time and Modes of Being). Seen more as a whole, Ingarden's body of work revolves not around aesthetics, but rather around the realism/idealism problem — an issue that was to dominate his thinking ever since, as a young man, he recoiled against Husserl's transcendental idealism. As I will discuss in §3.1 below, Ingarden's work in aesthetics was actually motivated by his interest in the realism/idealism problem. His studies in fiction and the ontology of art were intended to form part of a large-scale argument against transcendental idealism, based in emphasizing the difference between 'real' entities entirely independent of our minds, and social and cultural entities that (as 'purely intentional objects') owe their existence, at least in part, to human consciousness — thus showing that, in virtue of the very meanings of the ideas involved, the 'real world' as a whole cannot be properly treated as a purely intentional object that owes its existence to consciousness. In developing a positive position, Ingarden sought a middle path between the reductive physicalist realisms popular among analytic philosophers, and the transcendental idealism adopted by Husserl, rejecting the simplistic bifurcation between entities that are 'mind-independent' and those that are 'merely subjective'. His most important and lasting contribution may lie in providing a richer ontological framework that could track the different ways in which many objects of the 'life-world' of daily experience depend on human intentionality and on mind-independent reality, and in developing a moderate realist position that offered room not only for independent physical reality and for consciousness, but also for the whole variety of life-world objects that owe their existence, in part, to both. 2. Ontology and Metaphysics Most of Ingarden's major work focuses on ontology, which he considers a purely a priori enterprise, concerned not with what actually exists, but with what could possibly exist (which concepts are non-contradictory), and with what (according to the contents of the relevant ideas) it would take for objects of various kinds to exist, or entail if they existed. He thus contrasts ontology with metaphysics, which is concerned with answering factual questions about what sorts of things actually exist and what they are like. Ontology, in Ingarden's hands, thus bears close resemblance to the sorts of conceptual analysis that became common in analytic philosophy in roughly the same period. Ingarden's work on the ontology of art is ontological in this sense, e.g. he attempts to determine, by analysis of the essential meanings of experiences that could present something as a work of literature, music, or architecture, what sort of an entity such an object would have to be to satisfy those experiences and meanings, and how it would have to relate to consciousness and physical objects. In his Habilitationscrhift, Essentiale Fragen (Essential Questions) from 1925 Ingarden "paves the way for his future metaphysics of the world", such as he later develops in The Controversy over the Existence of the World (de Santis 2015). In Essential Questions, the focus is on different ways in which one may ask questions about essences. Ingarden assumes (as was characteristic in the phenomenological tradition) that there is a correlation between types of judgment and entities judged about. He thus uses the differences in the sorts of judgments that would answer the various questions as the basis for distinguishing different categories of Ideas. (For further discussion, see de Santis 2015, Ryle 1927). 2.1 Criticisms of Transcendental Idealism Despite Ingarden's deep admiration for Husserl, one crucial issue — transcendental idealism — divided them. Indeed, Ingarden was already "tormented" by the problem for years before he completed his dissertation ["Letter," 422], and by 1918 had definitively determined that he could not share Husserl's transcendental idealism [Streit, vii]. Ingarden's concern with and rejection of transcendental idealism directly or indirectly determined the course of much of his later philosophical work, so much so that in 1961 he describes his process of working on idealism as one "which has been in fact occupying my entire scholarly life." ["Letter," 437]. The transcendental idealism Ingarden rejects is the position that the so-called 'real world' depends on consciousness for its existence and essence; that it exists only for consciousness and beyond that is a 'nothing'. While there is some debate among Husserl scholars over whether or not Husserl genuinely took the 'turn' to transcendental idealism in a metaphysical sense (as opposed to merely treating it as if it were true while undertaking the methodology of transcendental reduction), Ingarden clearly saw Husserl as turning from the realism of the Logical Investigations to a metaphysical form of transcendental idealism by the time the first volume of Ideas was published, and the two frequently debated this topic in letter and in person during the period from 1918–1938. Ingarden takes Husserl to have been driven to transcendental idealism largely by his epistemological goals and transcendental approach to phenomenology. If the very idea of three-dimensional external objects makes sense, it would be essential that our perceptions of them are inevitably inadequate: They may be presented from one point of view or another, but never exhaustively and entirely -- so room is always left open for new perceptions that would lead us to entirely revise our past judgments. Such objects thus would inherently transcend any finite set of experiences of them; no external object could be part of any experience of it, and any judgments we attempt to make about them would be open to doubt. Thus if phenomenology is to be a 'rigorous science' grounded only in what does not go beyond our experience, it must limit its study to objects of 'immanent perception', the meaningful series of (actual and possible) contents of consciousness rather than any supposedly transcendent objects presented by them. Moreover, as Husserl argues in §41 of the Cartesian Meditations, since the transcendental ego is the source of all sense, any meaning of 'transcendent object' 'outside of consciousness', etc. must be a meaning constructed through layerings of the senses of our conscious acts, and transcendental phenomenology can analyze how these meanings are built up out of other meanings of individual acts of perception and intention (e.g. 'is perceived from this angle', 'could be perceived from another angle, in these other ways', etc.) This is the meaning that the question e.g. 'is this object real?' may have from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology. Any attempt to go beyond this understanding of 'transcendent object' or 'real object outside of consciousness', however, to talk of something beyond what can be constituted by any actual or possible experience is literally going beyond what can be meaningfully asked; it is literally non-sense. The very idea of a world outside of and independent from all actual and possible experience is thus, from this point of view, an illegitimate concept, a kind of disguised nonsense. The only 'real world' of which we can legitimately speak, have knowledge, or enter into other intentional relations with is the 'real world' as constituted by, and essentially correlated with, meaningful series' of intentional acts. Ingarden accepted that, as long as we approach the realism problem from the standpoint of epistemology, or from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, there is no way out to establish the existence and knowledge of a mind-independent world. Nor, however, can one establish that the real world depends on consciousness, since any attempted talk about the world in-itself and its nature would be meaningless — thus from that standpoint, the controversy over the existence of the world would have to remain undecided. But he also thought that other approaches to philosophy were legitimate, and indeed that one should begin from ontology rather than epistemology. According to Ingarden, the realism/idealism problem is fundamentally a metaphysical problem (about the actual existence of the so-called 'real' world and its relation to consciousness), but may be non-circularly approached via ontology by examining what the possible sorts of relation between consciousness and the world could be. In particular, Ingarden hoped that an ontological approach to the realism/idealism problem could lead to a solution by attempting to identify what the possible modes of being would be of the 'real' world and of consciousness, and how the two could possibly be related. This was the motive for his monumental work in ontology, The Controversy over the Existence of the World, designed to describe the different possible modes of being and their possible interrelations, with a view to narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem. Unfortunately, the work was never fully completed (although the first two volumes were published and the third in progress at the time of Ingarden's death), but the portions that exist nonetheless contain many important and detailed ontological analyses valuable in their own right as well as having the potential to contribute to the discussion of the realism/idealism controversy. Prominent among these is his distinction between formal, material, and existential ontologies, and distinguishing 'modes of being' as highest existential categories. 2.2 Modes of Being Most traditional category systems, such as Aristotle's, lay out a single dimension of categories supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Ingarden, by contrast, develops a multi-dimensional category scheme by dividing ontology into three parts: formal, material and existential ontologies, corresponding to three distinct aspects that may be discerned in any entity (its formal structure, material nature, and mode of being respectively). These different formal, material and existential aspects of the object, studied by the different types of ontology, may thus be used to classify an object in any of three interpenetrating dimensions (although not all combinations among formal, material and existential modes are possible). The formal categories are marked by such familiar ontological divisions as those between objects, processes and relations. Following Husserl, in addition to these, Ingarden distinguishes material categories, with high-level material kinds including, e.g., works of art and real (spatio-temporal) objects. Finally, claiming there is an essential ambiguity in the term 'exists', Ingarden also goes on to distinguish different existential categories or "modes of being" — different ways in which entities may exist, e.g., dependently or independently, in time or not, contingently or necessarily, etc. The modes of being are defined in terms of different characteristic combinations of 'existential moments'. The existential moments mostly concern either an object's temporal determinations (or lack thereof), or the different dependencies it bears (or does not bear) to other sorts of object. In investigating the existential moments that characterize a temporal mode of being, Ingarden makes original contributions to work in the ontology and phenomenology of time, arguing that the past and future exist, but in a different mode of being than the present (for more on Ingarden's contribution to these debates see Kobiela 2019). In drawing out the different dependencies that an entity can bear on another, Ingarden goes beyond Husserl's influential work on dependence to distinguish four different existential moments of dependence (and their contrasting moments of independence): Contingency (the dependence of a separate entity on another in order to remain in existence); Derivation (the dependence of an entity on another in order to come into existence); Inseparateness (the dependence of an entity that can only exist if it coexists with something else in a single whole); and Heteronomy (the dependence of an entity for its existence and entire qualitative endowment on another). In so doing, Ingarden develops one of the richest and most detailed analyses of dependence ever offered, providing distinctions in the notion of dependence that can clarify many philosophical problems including but certainly not limited to the realism/idealism problem. Ingarden's four highest existential-ontological categories or 'modes of being' are: Absolute, Real, Ideal, and Purely Intentional. The absolute mode of being could be exhibited only by a being such as God, which could exist even if nothing else whatsoever ever existed. The ideal mode of being is a timeless mode of existence suitable for platonistically conceived numbers; the real mode of being is that of contingent spatio-temporal entities such as the realist assumes ordinary rocks and trees to be; while the purely intentional mode of being is that occupied by fictional characters and other entities which owe their existence and nature to acts of consciousness. Thus the realism/idealism controversy can be reconfigured as the controversy over whether the so-called 'real world' has the real or purely intentional mode of being. (For further discussion of the Purely Intentional mode of being and its role in the theory of perception, see Chrudzimski 2015 and Uemura 2019) 3. Aesthetics 3.1 The Literary Work of Art By far Ingarden's best-known and most influential work, especially in the English-speaking world, is The Literary Work of Art, which was written around 1926, and first published in German in 1931. It is fundamentally a work in ontology, in Ingarden's sense (see §2 above), laying out the essential features anything must have to be counted as a literary work, what parts it must have and how they are interrelated, and how such entities as literary works relate to other sorts of entities such as authors, copies of texts, readers, and ideal meanings. As with so much of Ingarden's philosophical work, he undertakes this study of the ontology of the literary work in part with the motive of utilizing its results to argue against transcendental idealism — indeed he conceived of The Literary Work of Art as a preliminary study for The Controversy. Literary works and the characters and objects represented in them were to provide examples of purely intentional objects — objects owing their existence and essence to consciousness. Thus a detailed study of works of literature and their represented objects could serve to explicate the purely intentional mode of being, with a view to contrasting this with the real mode of being and ultimately demonstrating that it is impossible to reduce the 'real world' to the status of a purely intentional creation. [Streit, vii-viii]. Nonetheless, this motive remains largely behind the scenes of the detailed studies of language and literature in The Literary Work of Art, which can be (and largely has been) described and evaluated without reference to these broader motives, as an independent contribution to aesthetics and literary theory. The work begins by attempting to determine the 'mode of existence' of the literary work — essentially the same problem that today goes under the heading of understanding the ontological status of works of literature, music, etc. In twelve concise pages, he provides compelling reasons to reject both attempts to identify literary works with "real" objects or events such as copies of texts or the psychological experiences of authors or readers, and attempts to identify them with platonistic "ideal" objects such as ordered manifolds of sentences or meanings. Each such attempted identification leads to various absurdities, e.g. the view literary works are physical objects would lead us to say that such works differ by chemical composition; the view that they are experiences of the author would make them completely unknowable, while the view that they are experiences of readers would prevent us from postulating a single work Hamlet known by many readers; and the view that they are ideal objects would entail that literary works may never be created and cannot be changed, even by their authors. As a result, works of literature cannot be classified in either of the major categories of objects accepted by traditional metaphysics — neither the categories of the real nor the ideal are suited for them. Any acceptable ontology of literature thus must accept entities of another category. As Ingarden ultimately argues towards the close of the text, the literary work is a "purely intentional formation," derived from the sentence-forming activities of its author(s), and founded on some public copy of these sentences, and also depending for its existence and essence on a relation to certain ideal meanings attached to the words of the text. While the question of the ontological status of the literary work forms the work's beginning, most of the details of the text are dedicated to drawing out an "essential anatomy" of the literary work, determining its essential parts and their relations to one another. Ingarden conceives of this task as preliminary to any questions of the values that works of literature may or may not have, as we will be better able to see where values of different types can inhere once we know what the different parts of the literary work are. According to Ingarden, every literary work is composed of four heterogeneous strata: - Word sounds and phonetic formations of higher order (including the typical rhythms and melodies associated with phrases, sentences and paragraphs of various kinds) - Meaning units (formed by conjoining the sounds employed in a language with ideal concepts; these also range from the individual meanings of words to the higher-order meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) - Schematized aspects (these are the visual, auditory, or other 'aspects' via which the characters and places represented in the work may be 'quasi-sensorially' apprehended) - Represented entities (the objects, events, states of affairs, etc. represented in the literary work and forming its characters, plot, etc.). Each of these strata has room for its own typical sorts of aesthetic value (or disvalue); thus we may distinguish the values of rhythm, alliteration, or mellifluousness at the level of word sounds, from the values in interesting (or jarring) juxtapositions of ideas and concepts at the level of meaning units, from the quasi-visual splendor of the scene presented, from the values of sympathetic or complex characters and intricate plots. The values of a literary work, however, are not exhausted by the separate values of its several strata, for the strata do not exist separately, but rather form an 'organic unity'. Among the strata are various forms of mutual dependence and influence, and the harmonies or disharmonies among the strata (e.g. between the halting rhythms of a character's speech and his timid personality) may contribute other aesthetic merits or demerits to the work. Most importantly, in cooperation with the other strata, the stratum of represented objects may present "metaphysical qualities" such as the tragic, the dreadful, the peaceful and so on, which characterize true works of art. The work of literature as a whole, thus, is a "polyphonic harmony," much like a piece of polyphonic music in which each singer's voice may lend aesthetic qualities of its own to the value of the whole, while the greatest values of the work as a whole may lie in the intricate interrelations among the values of all of the individual elements. A stratified theory like Ingarden's has considerable strengths. It provides a framework within which we can offer detailed analyses of literary works identifying their many sorts of value or disvalue, rather than simply passing judgment on the whole. As a result, many apparent conflicts in judgments of taste may be resolved without embracing subjectivism, by noting that the individuals concerned may be passing judgment on different strata of the literary work. It also enables us to understand stylistic differences among authors and over time as differences in which strata are emphasized and which de-emphasized, e.g. as many modernist works de-emphasize the traditionally foregrounded stratum of represented objects in favor of juxtaposed images at the level of schematized aspects (e.g. Virginia Woolf's The Waves), or even background both of these to the rhythms and sound patterns at the level of phonetic formations (e.g. Edith Sitwell's nonsense poetry). Yet we can do so without seeing such changes as forming a radical break or undermining the idea that these are all part of a continuous literary tradition. 3.2 The Musical Work, The Picture, The Architectural Work In 1928, immediately after writing The Literary Work of Art, Ingarden expanded his analyses of the ontology of art from literature, to also discuss music, painting, and architecture in a series of essays originally intended as an appendix to The Literary Work of Art. As it happened, however, the appendix was not published along with The Literary Work of Art, and remained dormant until after the war, when (in 1946) essays on the picture and the architectural work were published in Polish. The three studies were expanded and finally published in German in 1961, along with an article on film, and were not translated into English until 1989. The late date of their release and the fact that they remain little known is a great shame, as they address many of the same ontological issues as those debated in 'analytic' aesthetics, and provide not only compelling arguments against many popular positions but also analyses of the ontological structure of works of various kinds unsurpassed in subtlety and detail. The first three essays of The Ontology of the Work of Art, "The Musical Work," "The Picture," and "The Architectural Work" each attempt to determine the ontological status of the work of art in question, its relation to concrete entities such as copies of the score, sound events, painted canvasses or buildings, as well as to creative acts of artists and the conscious states of viewers. Each also examines whether and to what extent the form of art in question, like the literary work, may turn out to have a stratified structure. The musical work, Ingarden argues, is distinct from experiences of its composer and listeners, and cannot be identified with any individual sound event, performance or copy of the score. But nor can it be classified among ideal entities, since it is created by a composer at a certain time, not merely discovered [Ontology, 4–5]. It thus apparently falls between categories such as the 'real' and the 'ideal', and so accepting the existence of musical works (like literary works) seems to require us to accept the existence of things in a category distinct from either of those — that of purely intentional objects. The musical work is a purely intentional object with its 'source of being in the creative acts of the composer and its ontic foundation in the score' [Ontology, 91]. In itself, a traditionally scored work of Western music is a schematic formation full of places of indeterminacy (e.g. it may be indeterminate exactly how loudly a note is to be played, or how long it should be held), which are filled out differently in various performances. Unlike the literary work, however, the work of music is not a stratified entity, there being no essential representing function of the sounds of the musical work (unlike the sounds of a novel). The picture, too, is a purely intentional object, created by an artist and founded both in a real painting (a paint-covered canvas), and in the viewer's operations of apprehending it. The picture as a work of art cannot be identified with the real paint-covered canvas hanging in a gallery, for the two have different properties and different modes of cognitive accessibility. The picture can only be seen, and indeed only seen from certain points of view; the painting, by contrast, can be seen, smelled, heard, or even tasted, and can be observed from any point of view. Ingarden also holds that the picture as such (unlike the painting) is not an individual object of any sort -- one and the same picture may be presented in many paintings (if they are all perfect copies of an original). (It might be worth noting that while this is plausible enough for the picture, considered as such, we do typically treat works of visual art as one-off individual objects (distinct from perfect copies or forgeries).) Moreover, the picture, to be seen, requires that viewers take up a certain cognitive attitude regarding it, not required to observe the painting. "The Architectural Work" is perhaps the most interesting of the three major essays in the Ontology of the Work of Art, for it suggests how Ingarden's examination of works of art may be broadened out to form the framework for a general theory of social and cultural objects and their relations to the more basic physical objects posited by the natural sciences. The architectural work might seem to pose the crucial objection to Ingarden's view that works of art are 'purely intentional objects' having at least a foundation of their existence in the intentional states of their makers and viewers: "After all, the Notre Dame of Paris appears to be no less real than the many residential buildings that stand in its vicinity, than the island upon which it was built, the river that flows nearby, and so on" [255]. Nonetheless, even in this case, Ingarden argues, the architectural work is not a mere independent 'real' object, although it is founded on one (the 'heap of stones' forming its physical basis). For its existence as an architectural work requires not only its creation by an architect (rather than its coming into existence as a mere natural formation), but also requires the 'reconstructive acts of the viewer' taking up a certain attitude towards the real object and helping co-constitute its aesthetic and even its sensible properties. The work of architecture is thus a doubly founded object, which "refers back not only to the creative acts of the architect and the reconstructive acts of the viewer, but also to its ontic foundation in a fully determined real thing shaped in a particular way" [Ontology, 263]. (The fact that even such purely intentional objects as works of art of various kinds are founded not exclusively in consciousness, but also (in various ways) on real spatio-temporal objects, is also an important part of Ingarden's arguments against idealism, suggesting that even if the proper mode of being for the world of experience was purely intentional being, that still would not be sufficient to show that all that exists is a pure product of consciousness.) This situation for architecture parallels that for a great many of the social and cultural objects of our everyday experience in what Husserl called the 'life-world'. As Ingarden emphasizes, a flag, for example, should not be identified with the mere piece of cloth of which it is fashioned, for it has different essential properties, and has an additional foundation in the mental acts of the community that accept it as a flag and endow it with meanings and embed it in norms of action (e.g. we are not to clean pots with it but to use it in rendering military honors). Similarly, a church is not identical with the real building on which it is founded, but rather is created only through acts of consecration and the preservation of appropriate attitudes in the relevant community. In virtue of its secondary dependence on acts of consciousness, the church is endowed with various (social and cultural) properties and functions that a mere ordered heap of building materials cannot have. In this way Ingarden provides the basis for an account of the nature of cultural and social objects that takes neither the reductionist route of identifying them with their physical bases, nor the subjectivist route of treating all objects as mere social constructions. The life-world takes its unique place as the common product of acts of consciousness and an independent real world, and its existence (in quite specific ways) presupposes that of both of those foundations. 3.3 Aesthetic Objects, Aesthetic Values, and Aesthetic Experience In addition to his work on the ontology of art objects of various kinds, Ingarden also undertook general work on the ontological status of the aesthetic object and the nature of aesthetic values, as well as phenomenological work on the experience of works of art of various kinds. On the object side, as we have seen he distinguishes in each case between the mere physical object and the work of art; but he also distinguishes both of these from what he calls the "concretization" (sometimes translated as "concretion") of the work of art, which he considers to be the true 'aesthetic object'. The work of art itself, in the case of most forms of art such as literature, painting, or music, is what Ingarden calls a "schematic formation." That is, it has certain 'places of indeterminacy', many of which are filled in by an individual interpretation or 'reading' of the work. Thus in the case of literature, there are many places of indeterminacy at the level of character and plot — unlike in the case of real people, it is often simply indeterminate what a literary character had for breakfast, how far she sat back from the table, what the table was made of, etc. Such indeterminacies are generally partially filled in by the reader in reconstructing the work, as the reader's background assumptions help (at least partially) flesh out the skeletal imaginary scene directly presented by the words of the text. Similarly, a representational painting generally leaves indeterminate, e.g., what the back of the person's head looks like in the case of a portrait, what they are thinking, or what happens immediately before or after the moment visually represented in paintings of historical events. Yet again, viewers' reconstructive acts typically supplement these indeterminacies in various ways, e.g. automatically grasping the lower right corner of Breugel's 'Fall of Icarus' as presenting the moment between a fall from the sky and the complete disappearance of the body under water (not, e.g., as presenting an attempt at an underwater handstand). Finally, in the case of music, a score leaves indeterminate various elements such as the precise timbre and fullness of tone, and these are filled out in different ways in different performances of the work. In each case, (at least partially) filling in the indeterminacies of the work through a reading, performance, or viewing renders the work more 'concrete'. Each work of art permits of a variety of legitimate concretizations which, unlike the work of art itself, may vary from viewer to viewer. If the concretion occurs within the aesthetic attitude, an aesthetic object is formed [Selected Papers, 93], and so many aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art. Corresponding to this three-fold distinction between physical object, work of art, and aesthetic object, Ingarden posits a three-fold distinction among properties. While the mere physical object possesses only value-neutral physical properties, the work of art may possess both 'axiologically neutral' properties such as having a certain sentence structure or bearing patches of color arranged in certain ways, and artistic value qualities founded on these, such as clarity or obscurity of expression, technical mastery in the way the materials are worked, balance of composition, etc. Aesthetic values such as serenity, sublimity, profundity, etc., though they exist 'potentially' in the work of art, only manifest themselves in the aesthetic objects created through concretizing the work of art, and characterize the aesthetic object as a whole, although their appearance may depend on that of many particular properties of the work of art and physical object. Since various aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art, these may also differ in their aesthetic values. This can, at least in part, help account for the variety of aesthetic judgments that may be formed apparently concerning the same work of art. Yet as usual, Ingarden is concerned to account for the role of consciousness in constituting aesthetic values and the variations in aesthetic judgments without embracing a subjectivism that would deny that there is any better or worse in aesthetic judgment, each being a mere report of the pleasure experienced by the one judging. Such subjectivism is to be avoided by noting first, that some concretizations are better suited to the work's demands than others, more faithful, or better able to bring out the potential values in the work. A careful interpreter and evaluator can, through repeated contact with the work, come increasingly close to separating out idiosyncratic elements of her interpretations from what is proper to the work. Secondly, the aesthetic properties of the resulting concretization are not arbitrary inventions of the viewer, nor are they based on the pleasure she derives from the experience. Instead, their appearance simply requires a competent viewer to observe the work's neutral and artistic values in an aesthetic attitude. Thus here, as elsewhere, Ingarden's goal is ultimately to account for the legitimate role of consciousness in constituting many of the objects and properties experienced by us, while also avoiding a pure subjectivism or universal social constructivism by acknowledging the role of an independent 'real' world in founding the cultural objects and value properties we so often concern ourselves with in daily life. In addition to his work on the ontology of works of art and their values, Ingarden also engaged in directly phenomenological investigations into the nature of our experience of works of art of various kinds. For example, he examines our experience of literature in The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, of music in The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, and of aesthetic experience more generally (including experience of sculpture) in "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object". In each case he is concerned not only to offer a detailed analysis of the development of the relevant aesthetic experience (including its development over time), but also to contrast such aesthetic experiences with cases of ordinary sense perception, undertaken in what he calls a 'practical' or an 'investigating attitude' (1961, 295). Thanks to Ira Richardson for research assistance with the 2020 updated version of this entry. Bibliography A bibliography (compiled in 1985) of Ingarden's works in English, French, German and Polish and of secondary sources is available in the edition of Ingarden's Selected Papers in Aesthetics cited below. Select Works in German - Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1921. - Essentiale Fragen. Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Wesens, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1925. - "Bemerkungen zum Problem Idealismus-Realismus," Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung, Ergänzungsband: Festschrift, Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, Halle: 1929, pp. 159–190. - Das literarische Kunstwerk. Eine Untersuchung aus dem Grenzgebiet der Ontologie, Logik und Literaturwissenschaft, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1931. - Untersuchungen zur Ontologie der Kunst: Musikwerk. Bild. Architektur. Film, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1962. - Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Bd. I, II/1, II/2. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1964–1965. - Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968. - Erlebnis, Kunstwerk und Wert. Vorträge zur Ästhetik 1937–1967, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1969. - Über die Verantwortung. Ihre ontischen Fundamente, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970. - Über die kausale Struktur der realen Welt. Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Band III, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1974. Select Works in Polish - O poznawaniu dzieła literackiego (The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art), Ossolineum, Lwów: 1937. - O budowie obrazu. Szkic z teorii sztuki (On the Structure of the Painting: A Sketch in the Theory of Art), Rozprawy Wydziału Filozoficznego PAU, Volume LXVII, No. 2, Kraków, 1946. - "O dziele architektury" (On the Architectural Work of Art). Nauka i Sztuka, Volume II, No. 1, 1946, pp. 3–26 and No. 2, pp. 26–51. - Spór o istnienie śwaita (The Controversy over the Existence of the World), PAU, Volume I, Kraków: 1947, Vol. II, Kraków, 1948. - Szkice z filozofii literatury (Sketches in the Philosophy of Literature), Volume 1, Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Polonista," Łódź, 1947. - "Elementy dzieła muzycznego" (Elements of the Musical Work of Art), Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu, Volume IX, 1955, Nos. 1–4, pp. 82–84. - Studia z estetyki (Studies in Aesthetics), PWN, Volume I Warszawa, 1957, Volume II, Warszawa, 1958. - O dziele literackim (The Literary Work of Art), PWN, Warszawa, 1960. - Przeżycie – dzieło – wartość (Experience – Work of Art – Value), WL, Kraków, 1966. - Studia z estetyki, Tom III (Studies in Aesthetics, Vol. III), PWN, Warszawa, 1970. - U podstaw teorii poznania (Foundations of the Theory of Knowledge), PWN, Warszawa, 1971. - Książeczka o człowieku (Little Book on Man), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków, 1972. Select Works in English Translation - "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 21/3: 289–313, 1961. - The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, translated by Ruth Ann Crowley and Kenneth R. Olson, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - The Controversy over the Existence of the World, translated by Arthur Szylewicz. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013. - The Literary Work of Art, translated by George G. Grabowicz, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - "The Letter to Husserl about the VI [Logical] Investigation and 'Idealism'," in Tymieniecka, 1976, pp. 419–438. - "The Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", translated by Bernard Linsky. Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy Volume 6, No. 6, 2018. - Man and Value, translated by Arthur Szylewicz, München: Philosophia Verlag, 1983. - On the Motives which led Edmund Husserl to Transcendental Idealism, translated by Arnor Hannibalsson, The Hague: 1976. - The Ontology of the Work of Art, translated by Raymond Meyer with John T. Goldthwait, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1989. - Selected Papers in Aesthetics, Peter J. McCormick (ed.), München: Philosophia Verlag, 1985. - Time and Modes of Being, translated (from parts of Der Streit) by Helen R. Michejda, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. - The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, translated by A. Czerniawski. Houndmills, U.K.: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1986 Select Secondary Sources - Bundgaard, Peer F., 2013. "Roman Ingarden's Theory of Reader Experience: A Critical Assessment". Semiotica, 194: 171–188. - Chojna, Wojciech, 2017. Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Literature: A Phenomenological Account. Leiden: Brill Rodolpi. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz (ed.), 2005, Existence, Culture, Persons: The Ontology of Roman Ingarden, Frankfurt: Ontos. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz, 2015, "Ingarden on Modes of Being" in Denis Seron, Sebastien Richard and Bruno Leclercq (eds.), Objects and Pseudo-Objects: Ontological Deserts and Jungles from Brentano to Carnap, Berlin: DeGruyter, pp. 199–222. - DeSantis, Daniele, 2015, "Wesen, Eidos, Idea Remarks on the 'Platonism' of Jean Héring and Roman Ingarden." Studia Phaenomenologica 15: 155–180. - Dziemidok, B. and McCormick, P. (eds.), 1989, On the Aesthetics of Roman Ingarden: Interpretations and Assessments, Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ewing, A.C., 1926, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 35 (138): 250. - Gniazdowski, Andrzej, 2010, "Roman Ingarden," Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, Hans Rainer Sapp and Lester Embree (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 167–70. - Graff, P. and S. Krzemień-Ojak (eds.), 1975, Roman Ingarden and Contemporary Polish Aesthetics, Warsaw: PWN. - Husserl, Edmund, 1968, Briefe an Roman Ingarden, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Kobiela, Filip, 2019, "How Long Does the Present Last? The Problem of Fissuration in Roman Ingarden's Ontology," in Barthlomiej Skowron, ed., Contemporary Polish Ontology, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 51–70. - Küng, Guido, 1972, "Ingarden on Language and Ontology," Analecta Husserliana, 2: 204–217. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 1997, Roman Ingarden's Ontology and Aesthetics, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 2012, "Roman Ingarden: Aesthetics," Philosophy Compass, 7(7): 436–37. - Nowak, Andrzej and Lesnek Sosnowski (eds.), 2001, Dictionary of Roman Ingarden's Philosophical Concepts, Kraków: Institute of Philosophy, Jagellonian University. - Pelletier, Jeffry and Bernard Linsky. 2018. "Verification: The Hysteron Proteron Argument" in Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy, Volume 6 No 6. - Richard, Sébastian and Malherbe, Olivier (eds.), 2016. Form(s) and Modes of Being. The Ontology of Roman Ingarden. Berlin: Peter Lang. - Rudnik, Hans H. (ed.), 1990, Ingardeniana II: New Studies in the Philosophy of Roman Ingarden (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 30), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ryle, Gilbert, 1927, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 36 (143): 366–370. - Smith, Barry, 1978, "Roman Ingarden: Ontological Foundations for Literary Theory," in Language, Literature and Meaning (Volume I), J. Odmark (ed.), Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 373–390. - Spiegelberg, Herbert, 1982, The Phenomenological Movement, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Stein, Edith, 2014. Letters to Roman Ingarden, translated by Hugh Candler Hunt, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications. - Szyszkowska, Malgorzata, 2018, "Musical Phenomenology: Artistic Traditions and Everyday Experience". Avant IX/2: 141–55. - Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.), 1976, Ingardeniana (Analecta Husserliana, Volume IV), Dordrecht: D. Reidel. - ––– (ed.), 1991, Ingardeniana III: Roman Ingarden's Aesthetics in a New Key and the Independent Approaches of Others: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature, (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 33), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Uemura, Genki, 2019,"Demystifying Roman Ingarden's Purely Intentional Objects of Perception," in Shigeru Taguchi & Nicolas de Warren (eds.), New Phenomenological Studies in Japan. Springer Verlag. pp. 139–162. - Wellek, René, 1982, Four Critics: Croce, Valery, Lukács and Ingarden, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Academic Tools [How to cite this entry]. [Preview the PDF version of this entry]at the [Friends of the SEP Society]. [Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry]at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). [Enhanced bibliography for this entry]at [PhilPapers], with links to its database. Other Internet Resources [The Roman Ingarden Philosophical Research Center](http://ingarden.center.uj.edu.pl/en/the-roman-ingarden-philosophical-research-center/), Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Poland. [Roman Ingarden: Ontology as a Science on the Possible Ways of Existence](http://www.formalontology.it/ingardenr.htm), in Theory and History of Ontology, (maintained by Raul Corazzon) [Roman Ingarden](http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_Ingarden), in New World Encyclopedia. [Roman Witold Ingarden](https://www.porta-polonica.de/en/atlas-of-remembrance-places/roman-witold-ingarden), in Porta Polonica.

Roman Ingarden

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ingarden/

Roman Ingarden Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl's from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl's turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem, Ingarden developed ontological studies unmatched in scope and detail, distinguishing different kinds of dependence and different modes of being. He is best known, however, for his work in aesthetics, particularly on the ontology of the work of art and the status of aesthetic values, and is credited with being the founder of phenomenological aesthetics. His work The Literary Work of Art has been widely influential in literary theory as well as philosophical aesthetics, and has been crucial to the development of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory. [1. Life and Work](#LifeWork) [2. Ontology and Metaphysics](#OntoMeta) [3. Aesthetics](#Aest) [Bibliography](#Bib) [Academic Tools](#Aca) [Other Internet Resources](#Oth) [Related Entries](#Rel) 1. Life and Work Roman Witold Ingarden was born on February 5, 1893 in Kraków. He initially studied mathematics and philosophy in Lwów (now known as 'Lviv' and in Ukraine), and in 1912 went to Göttingen where he studied philosophy under Edmund Husserl, taking four semesters of seminars with Husserl, from 1912 to 1914, and again during the summer of 1915. Husserl considered Ingarden one of his best students, and the two remained in close touch until Husserl's death in 1938 (their philosophical correspondence was eventually published as Husserl's Briefe an Roman Ingarden). Ingarden also studied philosophy in Lwów with Kazimierz Twardowski (who, like Husserl, was a student of Franz Brentano). When Husserl accepted the chair at Freiburg, Ingarden followed him, submitting his dissertation "Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson" in 1917, for which he received his Ph.D. in 1918, with Husserl as director. After submitting his dissertation, Ingarden returned to Poland for the remainder of his academic career, first teaching mathematics, psychology and philosophy in secondary schools while he worked on his Habilitationschrift. That work, published as Essentiale Fragen in 1925, attracted some attention in the English speaking philosophical world, being reviewed twice in Mind (by A.C. Ewing in 1926 and by Gilbert Ryle in 1927). With the publication of his Habilitationschrift, Ingarden was appointed as Privatdozent at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów, where he was promoted to Professor in 1933. During this time his most well known work, The Literary Work of Art, was first published (1931, in German), followed by The Cognition of the Literary Work (1936, in Polish). His academic career was interrupted from 1941–1944, when (due to the war) the university was closed, and he secretly taught philosophy at the university, and mathematics to secondary school children in an orphanage. At the same time (and despite the bombing of his house in Lwów), Ingarden was working intensively on his magnum opus The Controversy over the Existence of the World (the first two volumes of which were published in Polish in 1947 and 1948 respectively). In 1945 he moved to Jagiellonian University in Kraków, where he was given a chair in 1946, however in 1949, (under Stalinization) he was banned from teaching because of his alleged "idealism" (ironically, a philosophical position against which Ingarden fought for most of his life) and for being an "enemy of materialism". The ban continued until 1957, at which point Ingarden was reappointed to his post at Jagiellonian University, where he taught until his retirement in 1963 and continued to write, publishing such works as The Ontology of the Work of Art (1962) and Experience, Artwork and Value (1969). Ingarden died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage on June 14, 1970, while still fully engaged in his philosophical projects. A careful, detailed, and fully documented account of Ingarden's biography may be found in [Mitscherling, 1997], which also does much to settle the inconsistencies in earlier partial accounts of Ingarden's life. Like many of Husserl's students from the Göttingen period, Ingarden is a realist phenomenologist who ardently resisted Husserl's apparent turn to transcendental idealism in the Ideas and thereafter. Although his training is phenomenological, his work on the whole is directed not towards understanding the basic structures of consciousness, but rather towards ontology. Indeed, Ingarden is one of the foremost practitioners of phenomenological ontology, which attempts to determine what the ontological structure and status of objects of various types must be, based on examining essential features of any experience that could present or provide knowledge of such objects—a method based in the assumption that there are essential correlations between kinds of objects and the modes of cognition by means of which they can be known. Ingarden's best-known works, indeed the only ones known to most of his readers in the English-speaking world, are his works on aesthetics, especially literature—works that offer unrivalledly sophisticated and subtle accounts both of the ontological status of works of art of various kinds, and of our means of cognizing them. His phenomenological approach to aesthetics strongly influenced the work of Michel Dufrennes, and there are also strong resonances between his work on the ontology of art and contemporary analytic work in aesthetics, e.g., by Joseph Margolis, Nelson Goodman and Jerrold Levinson. The Literary Work of Art has been particularly influential in literary studies, where its effects are visible in Wolfgang Kayser's work Das sprachliche Kunstwerk and in the development of the schools of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory in the work of such theorists as René Wellek and Wolfgang Iser, respectively. Nonetheless, the frequently exclusive focus on Ingarden's work in aesthetics is somewhat unfortunate and can be misleading about his overall philosophical focus and goals. For Ingarden produced an enormous body of work on a wide variety of topics. He raised early and important criticisms of what he called "methodological Positivism" in a paper delivered in 1934 to the 8th World Congress of Philosophy in Prague, where Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath were present as respondents. There Ingarden argues that, by the positivist's own lights, 'metalogical' sentences about sentences should be counted as meaningless, since sentences themselves are not mere physical objects (to be sentences they must have a certain sense), and yet the methodological Positivist accepts only sentences about the physical as intersubjectively verifiable. If on the other hand, we do consider sentences to be mere physical 'mounds of ink' or 'sound waves', then they would not be verifiable (this, he seems to be suggesting, would be something like a category mistake: how can one verify a heap of ink?). Moreover, he argues (in what Pelletier and Linsky (2018) identify as a version of the 'Hysteron Proteron Objection') that in order to decide whether a sentence is verifiable, one must first identify its meaning "independently of its verification". The paper is now translated into English as "A Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", and reprinted alongside the brief responses by Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath, and interesting contemporary discussion and evaluation by Pelletier and Linsky (2018), who suggest that Carnap never adequately responded to these criticisms. Ingarden also produced a large body of work in epistemology, ontology, metaphysics, phenomenology, and value theory. The relative obscurity of Ingarden's work in these other areas is attributable in part to the relative isolation and interruption of academic philosophy in Poland in the period of World War Two and Soviet occupation, and in part to language barriers. Before the second world war, Ingarden (being German trained) published his works mainly in German, thus his early works such as The Literary Work of Art appeared in German early in his career, and were to have a broad impact. But during the war, Ingarden (in a gesture of solidarity) switched to writing in Polish, a language speakers of English and other Western European languages were unlikely to read, and so his major works on ontology went largely unnoticed by the wider European and Anglo-American philosophical circles. His major work in ontology, The Controversy, for example, was not translated into German until 1964, and only in 2013 did Part 1 become fully available in English translation (an earlier partial translation was published in 1964 as Time and Modes of Being). Seen more as a whole, Ingarden's body of work revolves not around aesthetics, but rather around the realism/idealism problem — an issue that was to dominate his thinking ever since, as a young man, he recoiled against Husserl's transcendental idealism. As I will discuss in §3.1 below, Ingarden's work in aesthetics was actually motivated by his interest in the realism/idealism problem. His studies in fiction and the ontology of art were intended to form part of a large-scale argument against transcendental idealism, based in emphasizing the difference between 'real' entities entirely independent of our minds, and social and cultural entities that (as 'purely intentional objects') owe their existence, at least in part, to human consciousness — thus showing that, in virtue of the very meanings of the ideas involved, the 'real world' as a whole cannot be properly treated as a purely intentional object that owes its existence to consciousness. In developing a positive position, Ingarden sought a middle path between the reductive physicalist realisms popular among analytic philosophers, and the transcendental idealism adopted by Husserl, rejecting the simplistic bifurcation between entities that are 'mind-independent' and those that are 'merely subjective'. His most important and lasting contribution may lie in providing a richer ontological framework that could track the different ways in which many objects of the 'life-world' of daily experience depend on human intentionality and on mind-independent reality, and in developing a moderate realist position that offered room not only for independent physical reality and for consciousness, but also for the whole variety of life-world objects that owe their existence, in part, to both. 2. Ontology and Metaphysics Most of Ingarden's major work focuses on ontology, which he considers a purely a priori enterprise, concerned not with what actually exists, but with what could possibly exist (which concepts are non-contradictory), and with what (according to the contents of the relevant ideas) it would take for objects of various kinds to exist, or entail if they existed. He thus contrasts ontology with metaphysics, which is concerned with answering factual questions about what sorts of things actually exist and what they are like. Ontology, in Ingarden's hands, thus bears close resemblance to the sorts of conceptual analysis that became common in analytic philosophy in roughly the same period. Ingarden's work on the ontology of art is ontological in this sense, e.g. he attempts to determine, by analysis of the essential meanings of experiences that could present something as a work of literature, music, or architecture, what sort of an entity such an object would have to be to satisfy those experiences and meanings, and how it would have to relate to consciousness and physical objects. In his Habilitationscrhift, Essentiale Fragen (Essential Questions) from 1925 Ingarden "paves the way for his future metaphysics of the world", such as he later develops in The Controversy over the Existence of the World (de Santis 2015). In Essential Questions, the focus is on different ways in which one may ask questions about essences. Ingarden assumes (as was characteristic in the phenomenological tradition) that there is a correlation between types of judgment and entities judged about. He thus uses the differences in the sorts of judgments that would answer the various questions as the basis for distinguishing different categories of Ideas. (For further discussion, see de Santis 2015, Ryle 1927). 2.1 Criticisms of Transcendental Idealism Despite Ingarden's deep admiration for Husserl, one crucial issue — transcendental idealism — divided them. Indeed, Ingarden was already "tormented" by the problem for years before he completed his dissertation ["Letter," 422], and by 1918 had definitively determined that he could not share Husserl's transcendental idealism [Streit, vii]. Ingarden's concern with and rejection of transcendental idealism directly or indirectly determined the course of much of his later philosophical work, so much so that in 1961 he describes his process of working on idealism as one "which has been in fact occupying my entire scholarly life." ["Letter," 437]. The transcendental idealism Ingarden rejects is the position that the so-called 'real world' depends on consciousness for its existence and essence; that it exists only for consciousness and beyond that is a 'nothing'. While there is some debate among Husserl scholars over whether or not Husserl genuinely took the 'turn' to transcendental idealism in a metaphysical sense (as opposed to merely treating it as if it were true while undertaking the methodology of transcendental reduction), Ingarden clearly saw Husserl as turning from the realism of the Logical Investigations to a metaphysical form of transcendental idealism by the time the first volume of Ideas was published, and the two frequently debated this topic in letter and in person during the period from 1918–1938. Ingarden takes Husserl to have been driven to transcendental idealism largely by his epistemological goals and transcendental approach to phenomenology. If the very idea of three-dimensional external objects makes sense, it would be essential that our perceptions of them are inevitably inadequate: They may be presented from one point of view or another, but never exhaustively and entirely -- so room is always left open for new perceptions that would lead us to entirely revise our past judgments. Such objects thus would inherently transcend any finite set of experiences of them; no external object could be part of any experience of it, and any judgments we attempt to make about them would be open to doubt. Thus if phenomenology is to be a 'rigorous science' grounded only in what does not go beyond our experience, it must limit its study to objects of 'immanent perception', the meaningful series of (actual and possible) contents of consciousness rather than any supposedly transcendent objects presented by them. Moreover, as Husserl argues in §41 of the Cartesian Meditations, since the transcendental ego is the source of all sense, any meaning of 'transcendent object' 'outside of consciousness', etc. must be a meaning constructed through layerings of the senses of our conscious acts, and transcendental phenomenology can analyze how these meanings are built up out of other meanings of individual acts of perception and intention (e.g. 'is perceived from this angle', 'could be perceived from another angle, in these other ways', etc.) This is the meaning that the question e.g. 'is this object real?' may have from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology. Any attempt to go beyond this understanding of 'transcendent object' or 'real object outside of consciousness', however, to talk of something beyond what can be constituted by any actual or possible experience is literally going beyond what can be meaningfully asked; it is literally non-sense. The very idea of a world outside of and independent from all actual and possible experience is thus, from this point of view, an illegitimate concept, a kind of disguised nonsense. The only 'real world' of which we can legitimately speak, have knowledge, or enter into other intentional relations with is the 'real world' as constituted by, and essentially correlated with, meaningful series' of intentional acts. Ingarden accepted that, as long as we approach the realism problem from the standpoint of epistemology, or from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, there is no way out to establish the existence and knowledge of a mind-independent world. Nor, however, can one establish that the real world depends on consciousness, since any attempted talk about the world in-itself and its nature would be meaningless — thus from that standpoint, the controversy over the existence of the world would have to remain undecided. But he also thought that other approaches to philosophy were legitimate, and indeed that one should begin from ontology rather than epistemology. According to Ingarden, the realism/idealism problem is fundamentally a metaphysical problem (about the actual existence of the so-called 'real' world and its relation to consciousness), but may be non-circularly approached via ontology by examining what the possible sorts of relation between consciousness and the world could be. In particular, Ingarden hoped that an ontological approach to the realism/idealism problem could lead to a solution by attempting to identify what the possible modes of being would be of the 'real' world and of consciousness, and how the two could possibly be related. This was the motive for his monumental work in ontology, The Controversy over the Existence of the World, designed to describe the different possible modes of being and their possible interrelations, with a view to narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem. Unfortunately, the work was never fully completed (although the first two volumes were published and the third in progress at the time of Ingarden's death), but the portions that exist nonetheless contain many important and detailed ontological analyses valuable in their own right as well as having the potential to contribute to the discussion of the realism/idealism controversy. Prominent among these is his distinction between formal, material, and existential ontologies, and distinguishing 'modes of being' as highest existential categories. 2.2 Modes of Being Most traditional category systems, such as Aristotle's, lay out a single dimension of categories supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Ingarden, by contrast, develops a multi-dimensional category scheme by dividing ontology into three parts: formal, material and existential ontologies, corresponding to three distinct aspects that may be discerned in any entity (its formal structure, material nature, and mode of being respectively). These different formal, material and existential aspects of the object, studied by the different types of ontology, may thus be used to classify an object in any of three interpenetrating dimensions (although not all combinations among formal, material and existential modes are possible). The formal categories are marked by such familiar ontological divisions as those between objects, processes and relations. Following Husserl, in addition to these, Ingarden distinguishes material categories, with high-level material kinds including, e.g., works of art and real (spatio-temporal) objects. Finally, claiming there is an essential ambiguity in the term 'exists', Ingarden also goes on to distinguish different existential categories or "modes of being" — different ways in which entities may exist, e.g., dependently or independently, in time or not, contingently or necessarily, etc. The modes of being are defined in terms of different characteristic combinations of 'existential moments'. The existential moments mostly concern either an object's temporal determinations (or lack thereof), or the different dependencies it bears (or does not bear) to other sorts of object. In investigating the existential moments that characterize a temporal mode of being, Ingarden makes original contributions to work in the ontology and phenomenology of time, arguing that the past and future exist, but in a different mode of being than the present (for more on Ingarden's contribution to these debates see Kobiela 2019). In drawing out the different dependencies that an entity can bear on another, Ingarden goes beyond Husserl's influential work on dependence to distinguish four different existential moments of dependence (and their contrasting moments of independence): Contingency (the dependence of a separate entity on another in order to remain in existence); Derivation (the dependence of an entity on another in order to come into existence); Inseparateness (the dependence of an entity that can only exist if it coexists with something else in a single whole); and Heteronomy (the dependence of an entity for its existence and entire qualitative endowment on another). In so doing, Ingarden develops one of the richest and most detailed analyses of dependence ever offered, providing distinctions in the notion of dependence that can clarify many philosophical problems including but certainly not limited to the realism/idealism problem. Ingarden's four highest existential-ontological categories or 'modes of being' are: Absolute, Real, Ideal, and Purely Intentional. The absolute mode of being could be exhibited only by a being such as God, which could exist even if nothing else whatsoever ever existed. The ideal mode of being is a timeless mode of existence suitable for platonistically conceived numbers; the real mode of being is that of contingent spatio-temporal entities such as the realist assumes ordinary rocks and trees to be; while the purely intentional mode of being is that occupied by fictional characters and other entities which owe their existence and nature to acts of consciousness. Thus the realism/idealism controversy can be reconfigured as the controversy over whether the so-called 'real world' has the real or purely intentional mode of being. (For further discussion of the Purely Intentional mode of being and its role in the theory of perception, see Chrudzimski 2015 and Uemura 2019) 3. Aesthetics 3.1 The Literary Work of Art By far Ingarden's best-known and most influential work, especially in the English-speaking world, is The Literary Work of Art, which was written around 1926, and first published in German in 1931. It is fundamentally a work in ontology, in Ingarden's sense (see §2 above), laying out the essential features anything must have to be counted as a literary work, what parts it must have and how they are interrelated, and how such entities as literary works relate to other sorts of entities such as authors, copies of texts, readers, and ideal meanings. As with so much of Ingarden's philosophical work, he undertakes this study of the ontology of the literary work in part with the motive of utilizing its results to argue against transcendental idealism — indeed he conceived of The Literary Work of Art as a preliminary study for The Controversy. Literary works and the characters and objects represented in them were to provide examples of purely intentional objects — objects owing their existence and essence to consciousness. Thus a detailed study of works of literature and their represented objects could serve to explicate the purely intentional mode of being, with a view to contrasting this with the real mode of being and ultimately demonstrating that it is impossible to reduce the 'real world' to the status of a purely intentional creation. [Streit, vii-viii]. Nonetheless, this motive remains largely behind the scenes of the detailed studies of language and literature in The Literary Work of Art, which can be (and largely has been) described and evaluated without reference to these broader motives, as an independent contribution to aesthetics and literary theory. The work begins by attempting to determine the 'mode of existence' of the literary work — essentially the same problem that today goes under the heading of understanding the ontological status of works of literature, music, etc. In twelve concise pages, he provides compelling reasons to reject both attempts to identify literary works with "real" objects or events such as copies of texts or the psychological experiences of authors or readers, and attempts to identify them with platonistic "ideal" objects such as ordered manifolds of sentences or meanings. Each such attempted identification leads to various absurdities, e.g. the view literary works are physical objects would lead us to say that such works differ by chemical composition; the view that they are experiences of the author would make them completely unknowable, while the view that they are experiences of readers would prevent us from postulating a single work Hamlet known by many readers; and the view that they are ideal objects would entail that literary works may never be created and cannot be changed, even by their authors. As a result, works of literature cannot be classified in either of the major categories of objects accepted by traditional metaphysics — neither the categories of the real nor the ideal are suited for them. Any acceptable ontology of literature thus must accept entities of another category. As Ingarden ultimately argues towards the close of the text, the literary work is a "purely intentional formation," derived from the sentence-forming activities of its author(s), and founded on some public copy of these sentences, and also depending for its existence and essence on a relation to certain ideal meanings attached to the words of the text. While the question of the ontological status of the literary work forms the work's beginning, most of the details of the text are dedicated to drawing out an "essential anatomy" of the literary work, determining its essential parts and their relations to one another. Ingarden conceives of this task as preliminary to any questions of the values that works of literature may or may not have, as we will be better able to see where values of different types can inhere once we know what the different parts of the literary work are. According to Ingarden, every literary work is composed of four heterogeneous strata: - Word sounds and phonetic formations of higher order (including the typical rhythms and melodies associated with phrases, sentences and paragraphs of various kinds) - Meaning units (formed by conjoining the sounds employed in a language with ideal concepts; these also range from the individual meanings of words to the higher-order meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) - Schematized aspects (these are the visual, auditory, or other 'aspects' via which the characters and places represented in the work may be 'quasi-sensorially' apprehended) - Represented entities (the objects, events, states of affairs, etc. represented in the literary work and forming its characters, plot, etc.). Each of these strata has room for its own typical sorts of aesthetic value (or disvalue); thus we may distinguish the values of rhythm, alliteration, or mellifluousness at the level of word sounds, from the values in interesting (or jarring) juxtapositions of ideas and concepts at the level of meaning units, from the quasi-visual splendor of the scene presented, from the values of sympathetic or complex characters and intricate plots. The values of a literary work, however, are not exhausted by the separate values of its several strata, for the strata do not exist separately, but rather form an 'organic unity'. Among the strata are various forms of mutual dependence and influence, and the harmonies or disharmonies among the strata (e.g. between the halting rhythms of a character's speech and his timid personality) may contribute other aesthetic merits or demerits to the work. Most importantly, in cooperation with the other strata, the stratum of represented objects may present "metaphysical qualities" such as the tragic, the dreadful, the peaceful and so on, which characterize true works of art. The work of literature as a whole, thus, is a "polyphonic harmony," much like a piece of polyphonic music in which each singer's voice may lend aesthetic qualities of its own to the value of the whole, while the greatest values of the work as a whole may lie in the intricate interrelations among the values of all of the individual elements. A stratified theory like Ingarden's has considerable strengths. It provides a framework within which we can offer detailed analyses of literary works identifying their many sorts of value or disvalue, rather than simply passing judgment on the whole. As a result, many apparent conflicts in judgments of taste may be resolved without embracing subjectivism, by noting that the individuals concerned may be passing judgment on different strata of the literary work. It also enables us to understand stylistic differences among authors and over time as differences in which strata are emphasized and which de-emphasized, e.g. as many modernist works de-emphasize the traditionally foregrounded stratum of represented objects in favor of juxtaposed images at the level of schematized aspects (e.g. Virginia Woolf's The Waves), or even background both of these to the rhythms and sound patterns at the level of phonetic formations (e.g. Edith Sitwell's nonsense poetry). Yet we can do so without seeing such changes as forming a radical break or undermining the idea that these are all part of a continuous literary tradition. 3.2 The Musical Work, The Picture, The Architectural Work In 1928, immediately after writing The Literary Work of Art, Ingarden expanded his analyses of the ontology of art from literature, to also discuss music, painting, and architecture in a series of essays originally intended as an appendix to The Literary Work of Art. As it happened, however, the appendix was not published along with The Literary Work of Art, and remained dormant until after the war, when (in 1946) essays on the picture and the architectural work were published in Polish. The three studies were expanded and finally published in German in 1961, along with an article on film, and were not translated into English until 1989. The late date of their release and the fact that they remain little known is a great shame, as they address many of the same ontological issues as those debated in 'analytic' aesthetics, and provide not only compelling arguments against many popular positions but also analyses of the ontological structure of works of various kinds unsurpassed in subtlety and detail. The first three essays of The Ontology of the Work of Art, "The Musical Work," "The Picture," and "The Architectural Work" each attempt to determine the ontological status of the work of art in question, its relation to concrete entities such as copies of the score, sound events, painted canvasses or buildings, as well as to creative acts of artists and the conscious states of viewers. Each also examines whether and to what extent the form of art in question, like the literary work, may turn out to have a stratified structure. The musical work, Ingarden argues, is distinct from experiences of its composer and listeners, and cannot be identified with any individual sound event, performance or copy of the score. But nor can it be classified among ideal entities, since it is created by a composer at a certain time, not merely discovered [Ontology, 4–5]. It thus apparently falls between categories such as the 'real' and the 'ideal', and so accepting the existence of musical works (like literary works) seems to require us to accept the existence of things in a category distinct from either of those — that of purely intentional objects. The musical work is a purely intentional object with its 'source of being in the creative acts of the composer and its ontic foundation in the score' [Ontology, 91]. In itself, a traditionally scored work of Western music is a schematic formation full of places of indeterminacy (e.g. it may be indeterminate exactly how loudly a note is to be played, or how long it should be held), which are filled out differently in various performances. Unlike the literary work, however, the work of music is not a stratified entity, there being no essential representing function of the sounds of the musical work (unlike the sounds of a novel). The picture, too, is a purely intentional object, created by an artist and founded both in a real painting (a paint-covered canvas), and in the viewer's operations of apprehending it. The picture as a work of art cannot be identified with the real paint-covered canvas hanging in a gallery, for the two have different properties and different modes of cognitive accessibility. The picture can only be seen, and indeed only seen from certain points of view; the painting, by contrast, can be seen, smelled, heard, or even tasted, and can be observed from any point of view. Ingarden also holds that the picture as such (unlike the painting) is not an individual object of any sort -- one and the same picture may be presented in many paintings (if they are all perfect copies of an original). (It might be worth noting that while this is plausible enough for the picture, considered as such, we do typically treat works of visual art as one-off individual objects (distinct from perfect copies or forgeries).) Moreover, the picture, to be seen, requires that viewers take up a certain cognitive attitude regarding it, not required to observe the painting. "The Architectural Work" is perhaps the most interesting of the three major essays in the Ontology of the Work of Art, for it suggests how Ingarden's examination of works of art may be broadened out to form the framework for a general theory of social and cultural objects and their relations to the more basic physical objects posited by the natural sciences. The architectural work might seem to pose the crucial objection to Ingarden's view that works of art are 'purely intentional objects' having at least a foundation of their existence in the intentional states of their makers and viewers: "After all, the Notre Dame of Paris appears to be no less real than the many residential buildings that stand in its vicinity, than the island upon which it was built, the river that flows nearby, and so on" [255]. Nonetheless, even in this case, Ingarden argues, the architectural work is not a mere independent 'real' object, although it is founded on one (the 'heap of stones' forming its physical basis). For its existence as an architectural work requires not only its creation by an architect (rather than its coming into existence as a mere natural formation), but also requires the 'reconstructive acts of the viewer' taking up a certain attitude towards the real object and helping co-constitute its aesthetic and even its sensible properties. The work of architecture is thus a doubly founded object, which "refers back not only to the creative acts of the architect and the reconstructive acts of the viewer, but also to its ontic foundation in a fully determined real thing shaped in a particular way" [Ontology, 263]. (The fact that even such purely intentional objects as works of art of various kinds are founded not exclusively in consciousness, but also (in various ways) on real spatio-temporal objects, is also an important part of Ingarden's arguments against idealism, suggesting that even if the proper mode of being for the world of experience was purely intentional being, that still would not be sufficient to show that all that exists is a pure product of consciousness.) This situation for architecture parallels that for a great many of the social and cultural objects of our everyday experience in what Husserl called the 'life-world'. As Ingarden emphasizes, a flag, for example, should not be identified with the mere piece of cloth of which it is fashioned, for it has different essential properties, and has an additional foundation in the mental acts of the community that accept it as a flag and endow it with meanings and embed it in norms of action (e.g. we are not to clean pots with it but to use it in rendering military honors). Similarly, a church is not identical with the real building on which it is founded, but rather is created only through acts of consecration and the preservation of appropriate attitudes in the relevant community. In virtue of its secondary dependence on acts of consciousness, the church is endowed with various (social and cultural) properties and functions that a mere ordered heap of building materials cannot have. In this way Ingarden provides the basis for an account of the nature of cultural and social objects that takes neither the reductionist route of identifying them with their physical bases, nor the subjectivist route of treating all objects as mere social constructions. The life-world takes its unique place as the common product of acts of consciousness and an independent real world, and its existence (in quite specific ways) presupposes that of both of those foundations. 3.3 Aesthetic Objects, Aesthetic Values, and Aesthetic Experience In addition to his work on the ontology of art objects of various kinds, Ingarden also undertook general work on the ontological status of the aesthetic object and the nature of aesthetic values, as well as phenomenological work on the experience of works of art of various kinds. On the object side, as we have seen he distinguishes in each case between the mere physical object and the work of art; but he also distinguishes both of these from what he calls the "concretization" (sometimes translated as "concretion") of the work of art, which he considers to be the true 'aesthetic object'. The work of art itself, in the case of most forms of art such as literature, painting, or music, is what Ingarden calls a "schematic formation." That is, it has certain 'places of indeterminacy', many of which are filled in by an individual interpretation or 'reading' of the work. Thus in the case of literature, there are many places of indeterminacy at the level of character and plot — unlike in the case of real people, it is often simply indeterminate what a literary character had for breakfast, how far she sat back from the table, what the table was made of, etc. Such indeterminacies are generally partially filled in by the reader in reconstructing the work, as the reader's background assumptions help (at least partially) flesh out the skeletal imaginary scene directly presented by the words of the text. Similarly, a representational painting generally leaves indeterminate, e.g., what the back of the person's head looks like in the case of a portrait, what they are thinking, or what happens immediately before or after the moment visually represented in paintings of historical events. Yet again, viewers' reconstructive acts typically supplement these indeterminacies in various ways, e.g. automatically grasping the lower right corner of Breugel's 'Fall of Icarus' as presenting the moment between a fall from the sky and the complete disappearance of the body under water (not, e.g., as presenting an attempt at an underwater handstand). Finally, in the case of music, a score leaves indeterminate various elements such as the precise timbre and fullness of tone, and these are filled out in different ways in different performances of the work. In each case, (at least partially) filling in the indeterminacies of the work through a reading, performance, or viewing renders the work more 'concrete'. Each work of art permits of a variety of legitimate concretizations which, unlike the work of art itself, may vary from viewer to viewer. If the concretion occurs within the aesthetic attitude, an aesthetic object is formed [Selected Papers, 93], and so many aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art. Corresponding to this three-fold distinction between physical object, work of art, and aesthetic object, Ingarden posits a three-fold distinction among properties. While the mere physical object possesses only value-neutral physical properties, the work of art may possess both 'axiologically neutral' properties such as having a certain sentence structure or bearing patches of color arranged in certain ways, and artistic value qualities founded on these, such as clarity or obscurity of expression, technical mastery in the way the materials are worked, balance of composition, etc. Aesthetic values such as serenity, sublimity, profundity, etc., though they exist 'potentially' in the work of art, only manifest themselves in the aesthetic objects created through concretizing the work of art, and characterize the aesthetic object as a whole, although their appearance may depend on that of many particular properties of the work of art and physical object. Since various aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art, these may also differ in their aesthetic values. This can, at least in part, help account for the variety of aesthetic judgments that may be formed apparently concerning the same work of art. Yet as usual, Ingarden is concerned to account for the role of consciousness in constituting aesthetic values and the variations in aesthetic judgments without embracing a subjectivism that would deny that there is any better or worse in aesthetic judgment, each being a mere report of the pleasure experienced by the one judging. Such subjectivism is to be avoided by noting first, that some concretizations are better suited to the work's demands than others, more faithful, or better able to bring out the potential values in the work. A careful interpreter and evaluator can, through repeated contact with the work, come increasingly close to separating out idiosyncratic elements of her interpretations from what is proper to the work. Secondly, the aesthetic properties of the resulting concretization are not arbitrary inventions of the viewer, nor are they based on the pleasure she derives from the experience. Instead, their appearance simply requires a competent viewer to observe the work's neutral and artistic values in an aesthetic attitude. Thus here, as elsewhere, Ingarden's goal is ultimately to account for the legitimate role of consciousness in constituting many of the objects and properties experienced by us, while also avoiding a pure subjectivism or universal social constructivism by acknowledging the role of an independent 'real' world in founding the cultural objects and value properties we so often concern ourselves with in daily life. In addition to his work on the ontology of works of art and their values, Ingarden also engaged in directly phenomenological investigations into the nature of our experience of works of art of various kinds. For example, he examines our experience of literature in The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, of music in The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, and of aesthetic experience more generally (including experience of sculpture) in "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object". In each case he is concerned not only to offer a detailed analysis of the development of the relevant aesthetic experience (including its development over time), but also to contrast such aesthetic experiences with cases of ordinary sense perception, undertaken in what he calls a 'practical' or an 'investigating attitude' (1961, 295). Thanks to Ira Richardson for research assistance with the 2020 updated version of this entry. Bibliography A bibliography (compiled in 1985) of Ingarden's works in English, French, German and Polish and of secondary sources is available in the edition of Ingarden's Selected Papers in Aesthetics cited below. Select Works in German - Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1921. - Essentiale Fragen. Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Wesens, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1925. - "Bemerkungen zum Problem Idealismus-Realismus," Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung, Ergänzungsband: Festschrift, Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, Halle: 1929, pp. 159–190. - Das literarische Kunstwerk. Eine Untersuchung aus dem Grenzgebiet der Ontologie, Logik und Literaturwissenschaft, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1931. - Untersuchungen zur Ontologie der Kunst: Musikwerk. Bild. Architektur. Film, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1962. - Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Bd. I, II/1, II/2. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1964–1965. - Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968. - Erlebnis, Kunstwerk und Wert. Vorträge zur Ästhetik 1937–1967, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1969. - Über die Verantwortung. Ihre ontischen Fundamente, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970. - Über die kausale Struktur der realen Welt. Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Band III, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1974. Select Works in Polish - O poznawaniu dzieła literackiego (The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art), Ossolineum, Lwów: 1937. - O budowie obrazu. Szkic z teorii sztuki (On the Structure of the Painting: A Sketch in the Theory of Art), Rozprawy Wydziału Filozoficznego PAU, Volume LXVII, No. 2, Kraków, 1946. - "O dziele architektury" (On the Architectural Work of Art). Nauka i Sztuka, Volume II, No. 1, 1946, pp. 3–26 and No. 2, pp. 26–51. - Spór o istnienie śwaita (The Controversy over the Existence of the World), PAU, Volume I, Kraków: 1947, Vol. II, Kraków, 1948. - Szkice z filozofii literatury (Sketches in the Philosophy of Literature), Volume 1, Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Polonista," Łódź, 1947. - "Elementy dzieła muzycznego" (Elements of the Musical Work of Art), Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu, Volume IX, 1955, Nos. 1–4, pp. 82–84. - Studia z estetyki (Studies in Aesthetics), PWN, Volume I Warszawa, 1957, Volume II, Warszawa, 1958. - O dziele literackim (The Literary Work of Art), PWN, Warszawa, 1960. - Przeżycie – dzieło – wartość (Experience – Work of Art – Value), WL, Kraków, 1966. - Studia z estetyki, Tom III (Studies in Aesthetics, Vol. III), PWN, Warszawa, 1970. - U podstaw teorii poznania (Foundations of the Theory of Knowledge), PWN, Warszawa, 1971. - Książeczka o człowieku (Little Book on Man), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków, 1972. Select Works in English Translation - "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 21/3: 289–313, 1961. - The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, translated by Ruth Ann Crowley and Kenneth R. Olson, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - The Controversy over the Existence of the World, translated by Arthur Szylewicz. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013. - The Literary Work of Art, translated by George G. Grabowicz, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - "The Letter to Husserl about the VI [Logical] Investigation and 'Idealism'," in Tymieniecka, 1976, pp. 419–438. - "The Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", translated by Bernard Linsky. Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy Volume 6, No. 6, 2018. - Man and Value, translated by Arthur Szylewicz, München: Philosophia Verlag, 1983. - On the Motives which led Edmund Husserl to Transcendental Idealism, translated by Arnor Hannibalsson, The Hague: 1976. - The Ontology of the Work of Art, translated by Raymond Meyer with John T. Goldthwait, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1989. - Selected Papers in Aesthetics, Peter J. McCormick (ed.), München: Philosophia Verlag, 1985. - Time and Modes of Being, translated (from parts of Der Streit) by Helen R. Michejda, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. - The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, translated by A. Czerniawski. Houndmills, U.K.: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1986 Select Secondary Sources - Bundgaard, Peer F., 2013. "Roman Ingarden's Theory of Reader Experience: A Critical Assessment". Semiotica, 194: 171–188. - Chojna, Wojciech, 2017. Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Literature: A Phenomenological Account. Leiden: Brill Rodolpi. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz (ed.), 2005, Existence, Culture, Persons: The Ontology of Roman Ingarden, Frankfurt: Ontos. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz, 2015, "Ingarden on Modes of Being" in Denis Seron, Sebastien Richard and Bruno Leclercq (eds.), Objects and Pseudo-Objects: Ontological Deserts and Jungles from Brentano to Carnap, Berlin: DeGruyter, pp. 199–222. - DeSantis, Daniele, 2015, "Wesen, Eidos, Idea Remarks on the 'Platonism' of Jean Héring and Roman Ingarden." Studia Phaenomenologica 15: 155–180. - Dziemidok, B. and McCormick, P. (eds.), 1989, On the Aesthetics of Roman Ingarden: Interpretations and Assessments, Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ewing, A.C., 1926, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 35 (138): 250. - Gniazdowski, Andrzej, 2010, "Roman Ingarden," Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, Hans Rainer Sapp and Lester Embree (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 167–70. - Graff, P. and S. Krzemień-Ojak (eds.), 1975, Roman Ingarden and Contemporary Polish Aesthetics, Warsaw: PWN. - Husserl, Edmund, 1968, Briefe an Roman Ingarden, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Kobiela, Filip, 2019, "How Long Does the Present Last? The Problem of Fissuration in Roman Ingarden's Ontology," in Barthlomiej Skowron, ed., Contemporary Polish Ontology, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 51–70. - Küng, Guido, 1972, "Ingarden on Language and Ontology," Analecta Husserliana, 2: 204–217. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 1997, Roman Ingarden's Ontology and Aesthetics, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 2012, "Roman Ingarden: Aesthetics," Philosophy Compass, 7(7): 436–37. - Nowak, Andrzej and Lesnek Sosnowski (eds.), 2001, Dictionary of Roman Ingarden's Philosophical Concepts, Kraków: Institute of Philosophy, Jagellonian University. - Pelletier, Jeffry and Bernard Linsky. 2018. "Verification: The Hysteron Proteron Argument" in Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy, Volume 6 No 6. - Richard, Sébastian and Malherbe, Olivier (eds.), 2016. Form(s) and Modes of Being. The Ontology of Roman Ingarden. Berlin: Peter Lang. - Rudnik, Hans H. (ed.), 1990, Ingardeniana II: New Studies in the Philosophy of Roman Ingarden (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 30), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ryle, Gilbert, 1927, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 36 (143): 366–370. - Smith, Barry, 1978, "Roman Ingarden: Ontological Foundations for Literary Theory," in Language, Literature and Meaning (Volume I), J. Odmark (ed.), Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 373–390. - Spiegelberg, Herbert, 1982, The Phenomenological Movement, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Stein, Edith, 2014. Letters to Roman Ingarden, translated by Hugh Candler Hunt, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications. - Szyszkowska, Malgorzata, 2018, "Musical Phenomenology: Artistic Traditions and Everyday Experience". Avant IX/2: 141–55. - Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.), 1976, Ingardeniana (Analecta Husserliana, Volume IV), Dordrecht: D. Reidel. - ––– (ed.), 1991, Ingardeniana III: Roman Ingarden's Aesthetics in a New Key and the Independent Approaches of Others: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature, (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 33), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Uemura, Genki, 2019,"Demystifying Roman Ingarden's Purely Intentional Objects of Perception," in Shigeru Taguchi & Nicolas de Warren (eds.), New Phenomenological Studies in Japan. Springer Verlag. pp. 139–162. - Wellek, René, 1982, Four Critics: Croce, Valery, Lukács and Ingarden, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Academic Tools [How to cite this entry]. [Preview the PDF version of this entry]at the [Friends of the SEP Society]. [Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry]at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). [Enhanced bibliography for this entry]at [PhilPapers], with links to its database. Other Internet Resources [The Roman Ingarden Philosophical Research Center](http://ingarden.center.uj.edu.pl/en/the-roman-ingarden-philosophical-research-center/), Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Poland. [Roman Ingarden: Ontology as a Science on the Possible Ways of Existence](http://www.formalontology.it/ingardenr.htm), in Theory and History of Ontology, (maintained by Raul Corazzon) [Roman Ingarden](http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_Ingarden), in New World Encyclopedia. [Roman Witold Ingarden](https://www.porta-polonica.de/en/atlas-of-remembrance-places/roman-witold-ingarden), in Porta Polonica.

Roman Ingarden

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ingarden/

Roman Ingarden Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl's from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl's turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem, Ingarden developed ontological studies unmatched in scope and detail, distinguishing different kinds of dependence and different modes of being. He is best known, however, for his work in aesthetics, particularly on the ontology of the work of art and the status of aesthetic values, and is credited with being the founder of phenomenological aesthetics. His work The Literary Work of Art has been widely influential in literary theory as well as philosophical aesthetics, and has been crucial to the development of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory. [1. Life and Work](#LifeWork) [2. Ontology and Metaphysics](#OntoMeta) [3. Aesthetics](#Aest) [Bibliography](#Bib) [Academic Tools](#Aca) [Other Internet Resources](#Oth) [Related Entries](#Rel) 1. Life and Work Roman Witold Ingarden was born on February 5, 1893 in Kraków. He initially studied mathematics and philosophy in Lwów (now known as 'Lviv' and in Ukraine), and in 1912 went to Göttingen where he studied philosophy under Edmund Husserl, taking four semesters of seminars with Husserl, from 1912 to 1914, and again during the summer of 1915. Husserl considered Ingarden one of his best students, and the two remained in close touch until Husserl's death in 1938 (their philosophical correspondence was eventually published as Husserl's Briefe an Roman Ingarden). Ingarden also studied philosophy in Lwów with Kazimierz Twardowski (who, like Husserl, was a student of Franz Brentano). When Husserl accepted the chair at Freiburg, Ingarden followed him, submitting his dissertation "Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson" in 1917, for which he received his Ph.D. in 1918, with Husserl as director. After submitting his dissertation, Ingarden returned to Poland for the remainder of his academic career, first teaching mathematics, psychology and philosophy in secondary schools while he worked on his Habilitationschrift. That work, published as Essentiale Fragen in 1925, attracted some attention in the English speaking philosophical world, being reviewed twice in Mind (by A.C. Ewing in 1926 and by Gilbert Ryle in 1927). With the publication of his Habilitationschrift, Ingarden was appointed as Privatdozent at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów, where he was promoted to Professor in 1933. During this time his most well known work, The Literary Work of Art, was first published (1931, in German), followed by The Cognition of the Literary Work (1936, in Polish). His academic career was interrupted from 1941–1944, when (due to the war) the university was closed, and he secretly taught philosophy at the university, and mathematics to secondary school children in an orphanage. At the same time (and despite the bombing of his house in Lwów), Ingarden was working intensively on his magnum opus The Controversy over the Existence of the World (the first two volumes of which were published in Polish in 1947 and 1948 respectively). In 1945 he moved to Jagiellonian University in Kraków, where he was given a chair in 1946, however in 1949, (under Stalinization) he was banned from teaching because of his alleged "idealism" (ironically, a philosophical position against which Ingarden fought for most of his life) and for being an "enemy of materialism". The ban continued until 1957, at which point Ingarden was reappointed to his post at Jagiellonian University, where he taught until his retirement in 1963 and continued to write, publishing such works as The Ontology of the Work of Art (1962) and Experience, Artwork and Value (1969). Ingarden died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage on June 14, 1970, while still fully engaged in his philosophical projects. A careful, detailed, and fully documented account of Ingarden's biography may be found in [Mitscherling, 1997], which also does much to settle the inconsistencies in earlier partial accounts of Ingarden's life. Like many of Husserl's students from the Göttingen period, Ingarden is a realist phenomenologist who ardently resisted Husserl's apparent turn to transcendental idealism in the Ideas and thereafter. Although his training is phenomenological, his work on the whole is directed not towards understanding the basic structures of consciousness, but rather towards ontology. Indeed, Ingarden is one of the foremost practitioners of phenomenological ontology, which attempts to determine what the ontological structure and status of objects of various types must be, based on examining essential features of any experience that could present or provide knowledge of such objects—a method based in the assumption that there are essential correlations between kinds of objects and the modes of cognition by means of which they can be known. Ingarden's best-known works, indeed the only ones known to most of his readers in the English-speaking world, are his works on aesthetics, especially literature—works that offer unrivalledly sophisticated and subtle accounts both of the ontological status of works of art of various kinds, and of our means of cognizing them. His phenomenological approach to aesthetics strongly influenced the work of Michel Dufrennes, and there are also strong resonances between his work on the ontology of art and contemporary analytic work in aesthetics, e.g., by Joseph Margolis, Nelson Goodman and Jerrold Levinson. The Literary Work of Art has been particularly influential in literary studies, where its effects are visible in Wolfgang Kayser's work Das sprachliche Kunstwerk and in the development of the schools of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory in the work of such theorists as René Wellek and Wolfgang Iser, respectively. Nonetheless, the frequently exclusive focus on Ingarden's work in aesthetics is somewhat unfortunate and can be misleading about his overall philosophical focus and goals. For Ingarden produced an enormous body of work on a wide variety of topics. He raised early and important criticisms of what he called "methodological Positivism" in a paper delivered in 1934 to the 8th World Congress of Philosophy in Prague, where Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath were present as respondents. There Ingarden argues that, by the positivist's own lights, 'metalogical' sentences about sentences should be counted as meaningless, since sentences themselves are not mere physical objects (to be sentences they must have a certain sense), and yet the methodological Positivist accepts only sentences about the physical as intersubjectively verifiable. If on the other hand, we do consider sentences to be mere physical 'mounds of ink' or 'sound waves', then they would not be verifiable (this, he seems to be suggesting, would be something like a category mistake: how can one verify a heap of ink?). Moreover, he argues (in what Pelletier and Linsky (2018) identify as a version of the 'Hysteron Proteron Objection') that in order to decide whether a sentence is verifiable, one must first identify its meaning "independently of its verification". The paper is now translated into English as "A Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", and reprinted alongside the brief responses by Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath, and interesting contemporary discussion and evaluation by Pelletier and Linsky (2018), who suggest that Carnap never adequately responded to these criticisms. Ingarden also produced a large body of work in epistemology, ontology, metaphysics, phenomenology, and value theory. The relative obscurity of Ingarden's work in these other areas is attributable in part to the relative isolation and interruption of academic philosophy in Poland in the period of World War Two and Soviet occupation, and in part to language barriers. Before the second world war, Ingarden (being German trained) published his works mainly in German, thus his early works such as The Literary Work of Art appeared in German early in his career, and were to have a broad impact. But during the war, Ingarden (in a gesture of solidarity) switched to writing in Polish, a language speakers of English and other Western European languages were unlikely to read, and so his major works on ontology went largely unnoticed by the wider European and Anglo-American philosophical circles. His major work in ontology, The Controversy, for example, was not translated into German until 1964, and only in 2013 did Part 1 become fully available in English translation (an earlier partial translation was published in 1964 as Time and Modes of Being). Seen more as a whole, Ingarden's body of work revolves not around aesthetics, but rather around the realism/idealism problem — an issue that was to dominate his thinking ever since, as a young man, he recoiled against Husserl's transcendental idealism. As I will discuss in §3.1 below, Ingarden's work in aesthetics was actually motivated by his interest in the realism/idealism problem. His studies in fiction and the ontology of art were intended to form part of a large-scale argument against transcendental idealism, based in emphasizing the difference between 'real' entities entirely independent of our minds, and social and cultural entities that (as 'purely intentional objects') owe their existence, at least in part, to human consciousness — thus showing that, in virtue of the very meanings of the ideas involved, the 'real world' as a whole cannot be properly treated as a purely intentional object that owes its existence to consciousness. In developing a positive position, Ingarden sought a middle path between the reductive physicalist realisms popular among analytic philosophers, and the transcendental idealism adopted by Husserl, rejecting the simplistic bifurcation between entities that are 'mind-independent' and those that are 'merely subjective'. His most important and lasting contribution may lie in providing a richer ontological framework that could track the different ways in which many objects of the 'life-world' of daily experience depend on human intentionality and on mind-independent reality, and in developing a moderate realist position that offered room not only for independent physical reality and for consciousness, but also for the whole variety of life-world objects that owe their existence, in part, to both. 2. Ontology and Metaphysics Most of Ingarden's major work focuses on ontology, which he considers a purely a priori enterprise, concerned not with what actually exists, but with what could possibly exist (which concepts are non-contradictory), and with what (according to the contents of the relevant ideas) it would take for objects of various kinds to exist, or entail if they existed. He thus contrasts ontology with metaphysics, which is concerned with answering factual questions about what sorts of things actually exist and what they are like. Ontology, in Ingarden's hands, thus bears close resemblance to the sorts of conceptual analysis that became common in analytic philosophy in roughly the same period. Ingarden's work on the ontology of art is ontological in this sense, e.g. he attempts to determine, by analysis of the essential meanings of experiences that could present something as a work of literature, music, or architecture, what sort of an entity such an object would have to be to satisfy those experiences and meanings, and how it would have to relate to consciousness and physical objects. In his Habilitationscrhift, Essentiale Fragen (Essential Questions) from 1925 Ingarden "paves the way for his future metaphysics of the world", such as he later develops in The Controversy over the Existence of the World (de Santis 2015). In Essential Questions, the focus is on different ways in which one may ask questions about essences. Ingarden assumes (as was characteristic in the phenomenological tradition) that there is a correlation between types of judgment and entities judged about. He thus uses the differences in the sorts of judgments that would answer the various questions as the basis for distinguishing different categories of Ideas. (For further discussion, see de Santis 2015, Ryle 1927). 2.1 Criticisms of Transcendental Idealism Despite Ingarden's deep admiration for Husserl, one crucial issue — transcendental idealism — divided them. Indeed, Ingarden was already "tormented" by the problem for years before he completed his dissertation ["Letter," 422], and by 1918 had definitively determined that he could not share Husserl's transcendental idealism [Streit, vii]. Ingarden's concern with and rejection of transcendental idealism directly or indirectly determined the course of much of his later philosophical work, so much so that in 1961 he describes his process of working on idealism as one "which has been in fact occupying my entire scholarly life." ["Letter," 437]. The transcendental idealism Ingarden rejects is the position that the so-called 'real world' depends on consciousness for its existence and essence; that it exists only for consciousness and beyond that is a 'nothing'. While there is some debate among Husserl scholars over whether or not Husserl genuinely took the 'turn' to transcendental idealism in a metaphysical sense (as opposed to merely treating it as if it were true while undertaking the methodology of transcendental reduction), Ingarden clearly saw Husserl as turning from the realism of the Logical Investigations to a metaphysical form of transcendental idealism by the time the first volume of Ideas was published, and the two frequently debated this topic in letter and in person during the period from 1918–1938. Ingarden takes Husserl to have been driven to transcendental idealism largely by his epistemological goals and transcendental approach to phenomenology. If the very idea of three-dimensional external objects makes sense, it would be essential that our perceptions of them are inevitably inadequate: They may be presented from one point of view or another, but never exhaustively and entirely -- so room is always left open for new perceptions that would lead us to entirely revise our past judgments. Such objects thus would inherently transcend any finite set of experiences of them; no external object could be part of any experience of it, and any judgments we attempt to make about them would be open to doubt. Thus if phenomenology is to be a 'rigorous science' grounded only in what does not go beyond our experience, it must limit its study to objects of 'immanent perception', the meaningful series of (actual and possible) contents of consciousness rather than any supposedly transcendent objects presented by them. Moreover, as Husserl argues in §41 of the Cartesian Meditations, since the transcendental ego is the source of all sense, any meaning of 'transcendent object' 'outside of consciousness', etc. must be a meaning constructed through layerings of the senses of our conscious acts, and transcendental phenomenology can analyze how these meanings are built up out of other meanings of individual acts of perception and intention (e.g. 'is perceived from this angle', 'could be perceived from another angle, in these other ways', etc.) This is the meaning that the question e.g. 'is this object real?' may have from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology. Any attempt to go beyond this understanding of 'transcendent object' or 'real object outside of consciousness', however, to talk of something beyond what can be constituted by any actual or possible experience is literally going beyond what can be meaningfully asked; it is literally non-sense. The very idea of a world outside of and independent from all actual and possible experience is thus, from this point of view, an illegitimate concept, a kind of disguised nonsense. The only 'real world' of which we can legitimately speak, have knowledge, or enter into other intentional relations with is the 'real world' as constituted by, and essentially correlated with, meaningful series' of intentional acts. Ingarden accepted that, as long as we approach the realism problem from the standpoint of epistemology, or from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, there is no way out to establish the existence and knowledge of a mind-independent world. Nor, however, can one establish that the real world depends on consciousness, since any attempted talk about the world in-itself and its nature would be meaningless — thus from that standpoint, the controversy over the existence of the world would have to remain undecided. But he also thought that other approaches to philosophy were legitimate, and indeed that one should begin from ontology rather than epistemology. According to Ingarden, the realism/idealism problem is fundamentally a metaphysical problem (about the actual existence of the so-called 'real' world and its relation to consciousness), but may be non-circularly approached via ontology by examining what the possible sorts of relation between consciousness and the world could be. In particular, Ingarden hoped that an ontological approach to the realism/idealism problem could lead to a solution by attempting to identify what the possible modes of being would be of the 'real' world and of consciousness, and how the two could possibly be related. This was the motive for his monumental work in ontology, The Controversy over the Existence of the World, designed to describe the different possible modes of being and their possible interrelations, with a view to narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem. Unfortunately, the work was never fully completed (although the first two volumes were published and the third in progress at the time of Ingarden's death), but the portions that exist nonetheless contain many important and detailed ontological analyses valuable in their own right as well as having the potential to contribute to the discussion of the realism/idealism controversy. Prominent among these is his distinction between formal, material, and existential ontologies, and distinguishing 'modes of being' as highest existential categories. 2.2 Modes of Being Most traditional category systems, such as Aristotle's, lay out a single dimension of categories supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Ingarden, by contrast, develops a multi-dimensional category scheme by dividing ontology into three parts: formal, material and existential ontologies, corresponding to three distinct aspects that may be discerned in any entity (its formal structure, material nature, and mode of being respectively). These different formal, material and existential aspects of the object, studied by the different types of ontology, may thus be used to classify an object in any of three interpenetrating dimensions (although not all combinations among formal, material and existential modes are possible). The formal categories are marked by such familiar ontological divisions as those between objects, processes and relations. Following Husserl, in addition to these, Ingarden distinguishes material categories, with high-level material kinds including, e.g., works of art and real (spatio-temporal) objects. Finally, claiming there is an essential ambiguity in the term 'exists', Ingarden also goes on to distinguish different existential categories or "modes of being" — different ways in which entities may exist, e.g., dependently or independently, in time or not, contingently or necessarily, etc. The modes of being are defined in terms of different characteristic combinations of 'existential moments'. The existential moments mostly concern either an object's temporal determinations (or lack thereof), or the different dependencies it bears (or does not bear) to other sorts of object. In investigating the existential moments that characterize a temporal mode of being, Ingarden makes original contributions to work in the ontology and phenomenology of time, arguing that the past and future exist, but in a different mode of being than the present (for more on Ingarden's contribution to these debates see Kobiela 2019). In drawing out the different dependencies that an entity can bear on another, Ingarden goes beyond Husserl's influential work on dependence to distinguish four different existential moments of dependence (and their contrasting moments of independence): Contingency (the dependence of a separate entity on another in order to remain in existence); Derivation (the dependence of an entity on another in order to come into existence); Inseparateness (the dependence of an entity that can only exist if it coexists with something else in a single whole); and Heteronomy (the dependence of an entity for its existence and entire qualitative endowment on another). In so doing, Ingarden develops one of the richest and most detailed analyses of dependence ever offered, providing distinctions in the notion of dependence that can clarify many philosophical problems including but certainly not limited to the realism/idealism problem. Ingarden's four highest existential-ontological categories or 'modes of being' are: Absolute, Real, Ideal, and Purely Intentional. The absolute mode of being could be exhibited only by a being such as God, which could exist even if nothing else whatsoever ever existed. The ideal mode of being is a timeless mode of existence suitable for platonistically conceived numbers; the real mode of being is that of contingent spatio-temporal entities such as the realist assumes ordinary rocks and trees to be; while the purely intentional mode of being is that occupied by fictional characters and other entities which owe their existence and nature to acts of consciousness. Thus the realism/idealism controversy can be reconfigured as the controversy over whether the so-called 'real world' has the real or purely intentional mode of being. (For further discussion of the Purely Intentional mode of being and its role in the theory of perception, see Chrudzimski 2015 and Uemura 2019) 3. Aesthetics 3.1 The Literary Work of Art By far Ingarden's best-known and most influential work, especially in the English-speaking world, is The Literary Work of Art, which was written around 1926, and first published in German in 1931. It is fundamentally a work in ontology, in Ingarden's sense (see §2 above), laying out the essential features anything must have to be counted as a literary work, what parts it must have and how they are interrelated, and how such entities as literary works relate to other sorts of entities such as authors, copies of texts, readers, and ideal meanings. As with so much of Ingarden's philosophical work, he undertakes this study of the ontology of the literary work in part with the motive of utilizing its results to argue against transcendental idealism — indeed he conceived of The Literary Work of Art as a preliminary study for The Controversy. Literary works and the characters and objects represented in them were to provide examples of purely intentional objects — objects owing their existence and essence to consciousness. Thus a detailed study of works of literature and their represented objects could serve to explicate the purely intentional mode of being, with a view to contrasting this with the real mode of being and ultimately demonstrating that it is impossible to reduce the 'real world' to the status of a purely intentional creation. [Streit, vii-viii]. Nonetheless, this motive remains largely behind the scenes of the detailed studies of language and literature in The Literary Work of Art, which can be (and largely has been) described and evaluated without reference to these broader motives, as an independent contribution to aesthetics and literary theory. The work begins by attempting to determine the 'mode of existence' of the literary work — essentially the same problem that today goes under the heading of understanding the ontological status of works of literature, music, etc. In twelve concise pages, he provides compelling reasons to reject both attempts to identify literary works with "real" objects or events such as copies of texts or the psychological experiences of authors or readers, and attempts to identify them with platonistic "ideal" objects such as ordered manifolds of sentences or meanings. Each such attempted identification leads to various absurdities, e.g. the view literary works are physical objects would lead us to say that such works differ by chemical composition; the view that they are experiences of the author would make them completely unknowable, while the view that they are experiences of readers would prevent us from postulating a single work Hamlet known by many readers; and the view that they are ideal objects would entail that literary works may never be created and cannot be changed, even by their authors. As a result, works of literature cannot be classified in either of the major categories of objects accepted by traditional metaphysics — neither the categories of the real nor the ideal are suited for them. Any acceptable ontology of literature thus must accept entities of another category. As Ingarden ultimately argues towards the close of the text, the literary work is a "purely intentional formation," derived from the sentence-forming activities of its author(s), and founded on some public copy of these sentences, and also depending for its existence and essence on a relation to certain ideal meanings attached to the words of the text. While the question of the ontological status of the literary work forms the work's beginning, most of the details of the text are dedicated to drawing out an "essential anatomy" of the literary work, determining its essential parts and their relations to one another. Ingarden conceives of this task as preliminary to any questions of the values that works of literature may or may not have, as we will be better able to see where values of different types can inhere once we know what the different parts of the literary work are. According to Ingarden, every literary work is composed of four heterogeneous strata: - Word sounds and phonetic formations of higher order (including the typical rhythms and melodies associated with phrases, sentences and paragraphs of various kinds) - Meaning units (formed by conjoining the sounds employed in a language with ideal concepts; these also range from the individual meanings of words to the higher-order meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) - Schematized aspects (these are the visual, auditory, or other 'aspects' via which the characters and places represented in the work may be 'quasi-sensorially' apprehended) - Represented entities (the objects, events, states of affairs, etc. represented in the literary work and forming its characters, plot, etc.). Each of these strata has room for its own typical sorts of aesthetic value (or disvalue); thus we may distinguish the values of rhythm, alliteration, or mellifluousness at the level of word sounds, from the values in interesting (or jarring) juxtapositions of ideas and concepts at the level of meaning units, from the quasi-visual splendor of the scene presented, from the values of sympathetic or complex characters and intricate plots. The values of a literary work, however, are not exhausted by the separate values of its several strata, for the strata do not exist separately, but rather form an 'organic unity'. Among the strata are various forms of mutual dependence and influence, and the harmonies or disharmonies among the strata (e.g. between the halting rhythms of a character's speech and his timid personality) may contribute other aesthetic merits or demerits to the work. Most importantly, in cooperation with the other strata, the stratum of represented objects may present "metaphysical qualities" such as the tragic, the dreadful, the peaceful and so on, which characterize true works of art. The work of literature as a whole, thus, is a "polyphonic harmony," much like a piece of polyphonic music in which each singer's voice may lend aesthetic qualities of its own to the value of the whole, while the greatest values of the work as a whole may lie in the intricate interrelations among the values of all of the individual elements. A stratified theory like Ingarden's has considerable strengths. It provides a framework within which we can offer detailed analyses of literary works identifying their many sorts of value or disvalue, rather than simply passing judgment on the whole. As a result, many apparent conflicts in judgments of taste may be resolved without embracing subjectivism, by noting that the individuals concerned may be passing judgment on different strata of the literary work. It also enables us to understand stylistic differences among authors and over time as differences in which strata are emphasized and which de-emphasized, e.g. as many modernist works de-emphasize the traditionally foregrounded stratum of represented objects in favor of juxtaposed images at the level of schematized aspects (e.g. Virginia Woolf's The Waves), or even background both of these to the rhythms and sound patterns at the level of phonetic formations (e.g. Edith Sitwell's nonsense poetry). Yet we can do so without seeing such changes as forming a radical break or undermining the idea that these are all part of a continuous literary tradition. 3.2 The Musical Work, The Picture, The Architectural Work In 1928, immediately after writing The Literary Work of Art, Ingarden expanded his analyses of the ontology of art from literature, to also discuss music, painting, and architecture in a series of essays originally intended as an appendix to The Literary Work of Art. As it happened, however, the appendix was not published along with The Literary Work of Art, and remained dormant until after the war, when (in 1946) essays on the picture and the architectural work were published in Polish. The three studies were expanded and finally published in German in 1961, along with an article on film, and were not translated into English until 1989. The late date of their release and the fact that they remain little known is a great shame, as they address many of the same ontological issues as those debated in 'analytic' aesthetics, and provide not only compelling arguments against many popular positions but also analyses of the ontological structure of works of various kinds unsurpassed in subtlety and detail. The first three essays of The Ontology of the Work of Art, "The Musical Work," "The Picture," and "The Architectural Work" each attempt to determine the ontological status of the work of art in question, its relation to concrete entities such as copies of the score, sound events, painted canvasses or buildings, as well as to creative acts of artists and the conscious states of viewers. Each also examines whether and to what extent the form of art in question, like the literary work, may turn out to have a stratified structure. The musical work, Ingarden argues, is distinct from experiences of its composer and listeners, and cannot be identified with any individual sound event, performance or copy of the score. But nor can it be classified among ideal entities, since it is created by a composer at a certain time, not merely discovered [Ontology, 4–5]. It thus apparently falls between categories such as the 'real' and the 'ideal', and so accepting the existence of musical works (like literary works) seems to require us to accept the existence of things in a category distinct from either of those — that of purely intentional objects. The musical work is a purely intentional object with its 'source of being in the creative acts of the composer and its ontic foundation in the score' [Ontology, 91]. In itself, a traditionally scored work of Western music is a schematic formation full of places of indeterminacy (e.g. it may be indeterminate exactly how loudly a note is to be played, or how long it should be held), which are filled out differently in various performances. Unlike the literary work, however, the work of music is not a stratified entity, there being no essential representing function of the sounds of the musical work (unlike the sounds of a novel). The picture, too, is a purely intentional object, created by an artist and founded both in a real painting (a paint-covered canvas), and in the viewer's operations of apprehending it. The picture as a work of art cannot be identified with the real paint-covered canvas hanging in a gallery, for the two have different properties and different modes of cognitive accessibility. The picture can only be seen, and indeed only seen from certain points of view; the painting, by contrast, can be seen, smelled, heard, or even tasted, and can be observed from any point of view. Ingarden also holds that the picture as such (unlike the painting) is not an individual object of any sort -- one and the same picture may be presented in many paintings (if they are all perfect copies of an original). (It might be worth noting that while this is plausible enough for the picture, considered as such, we do typically treat works of visual art as one-off individual objects (distinct from perfect copies or forgeries).) Moreover, the picture, to be seen, requires that viewers take up a certain cognitive attitude regarding it, not required to observe the painting. "The Architectural Work" is perhaps the most interesting of the three major essays in the Ontology of the Work of Art, for it suggests how Ingarden's examination of works of art may be broadened out to form the framework for a general theory of social and cultural objects and their relations to the more basic physical objects posited by the natural sciences. The architectural work might seem to pose the crucial objection to Ingarden's view that works of art are 'purely intentional objects' having at least a foundation of their existence in the intentional states of their makers and viewers: "After all, the Notre Dame of Paris appears to be no less real than the many residential buildings that stand in its vicinity, than the island upon which it was built, the river that flows nearby, and so on" [255]. Nonetheless, even in this case, Ingarden argues, the architectural work is not a mere independent 'real' object, although it is founded on one (the 'heap of stones' forming its physical basis). For its existence as an architectural work requires not only its creation by an architect (rather than its coming into existence as a mere natural formation), but also requires the 'reconstructive acts of the viewer' taking up a certain attitude towards the real object and helping co-constitute its aesthetic and even its sensible properties. The work of architecture is thus a doubly founded object, which "refers back not only to the creative acts of the architect and the reconstructive acts of the viewer, but also to its ontic foundation in a fully determined real thing shaped in a particular way" [Ontology, 263]. (The fact that even such purely intentional objects as works of art of various kinds are founded not exclusively in consciousness, but also (in various ways) on real spatio-temporal objects, is also an important part of Ingarden's arguments against idealism, suggesting that even if the proper mode of being for the world of experience was purely intentional being, that still would not be sufficient to show that all that exists is a pure product of consciousness.) This situation for architecture parallels that for a great many of the social and cultural objects of our everyday experience in what Husserl called the 'life-world'. As Ingarden emphasizes, a flag, for example, should not be identified with the mere piece of cloth of which it is fashioned, for it has different essential properties, and has an additional foundation in the mental acts of the community that accept it as a flag and endow it with meanings and embed it in norms of action (e.g. we are not to clean pots with it but to use it in rendering military honors). Similarly, a church is not identical with the real building on which it is founded, but rather is created only through acts of consecration and the preservation of appropriate attitudes in the relevant community. In virtue of its secondary dependence on acts of consciousness, the church is endowed with various (social and cultural) properties and functions that a mere ordered heap of building materials cannot have. In this way Ingarden provides the basis for an account of the nature of cultural and social objects that takes neither the reductionist route of identifying them with their physical bases, nor the subjectivist route of treating all objects as mere social constructions. The life-world takes its unique place as the common product of acts of consciousness and an independent real world, and its existence (in quite specific ways) presupposes that of both of those foundations. 3.3 Aesthetic Objects, Aesthetic Values, and Aesthetic Experience In addition to his work on the ontology of art objects of various kinds, Ingarden also undertook general work on the ontological status of the aesthetic object and the nature of aesthetic values, as well as phenomenological work on the experience of works of art of various kinds. On the object side, as we have seen he distinguishes in each case between the mere physical object and the work of art; but he also distinguishes both of these from what he calls the "concretization" (sometimes translated as "concretion") of the work of art, which he considers to be the true 'aesthetic object'. The work of art itself, in the case of most forms of art such as literature, painting, or music, is what Ingarden calls a "schematic formation." That is, it has certain 'places of indeterminacy', many of which are filled in by an individual interpretation or 'reading' of the work. Thus in the case of literature, there are many places of indeterminacy at the level of character and plot — unlike in the case of real people, it is often simply indeterminate what a literary character had for breakfast, how far she sat back from the table, what the table was made of, etc. Such indeterminacies are generally partially filled in by the reader in reconstructing the work, as the reader's background assumptions help (at least partially) flesh out the skeletal imaginary scene directly presented by the words of the text. Similarly, a representational painting generally leaves indeterminate, e.g., what the back of the person's head looks like in the case of a portrait, what they are thinking, or what happens immediately before or after the moment visually represented in paintings of historical events. Yet again, viewers' reconstructive acts typically supplement these indeterminacies in various ways, e.g. automatically grasping the lower right corner of Breugel's 'Fall of Icarus' as presenting the moment between a fall from the sky and the complete disappearance of the body under water (not, e.g., as presenting an attempt at an underwater handstand). Finally, in the case of music, a score leaves indeterminate various elements such as the precise timbre and fullness of tone, and these are filled out in different ways in different performances of the work. In each case, (at least partially) filling in the indeterminacies of the work through a reading, performance, or viewing renders the work more 'concrete'. Each work of art permits of a variety of legitimate concretizations which, unlike the work of art itself, may vary from viewer to viewer. If the concretion occurs within the aesthetic attitude, an aesthetic object is formed [Selected Papers, 93], and so many aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art. Corresponding to this three-fold distinction between physical object, work of art, and aesthetic object, Ingarden posits a three-fold distinction among properties. While the mere physical object possesses only value-neutral physical properties, the work of art may possess both 'axiologically neutral' properties such as having a certain sentence structure or bearing patches of color arranged in certain ways, and artistic value qualities founded on these, such as clarity or obscurity of expression, technical mastery in the way the materials are worked, balance of composition, etc. Aesthetic values such as serenity, sublimity, profundity, etc., though they exist 'potentially' in the work of art, only manifest themselves in the aesthetic objects created through concretizing the work of art, and characterize the aesthetic object as a whole, although their appearance may depend on that of many particular properties of the work of art and physical object. Since various aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art, these may also differ in their aesthetic values. This can, at least in part, help account for the variety of aesthetic judgments that may be formed apparently concerning the same work of art. Yet as usual, Ingarden is concerned to account for the role of consciousness in constituting aesthetic values and the variations in aesthetic judgments without embracing a subjectivism that would deny that there is any better or worse in aesthetic judgment, each being a mere report of the pleasure experienced by the one judging. Such subjectivism is to be avoided by noting first, that some concretizations are better suited to the work's demands than others, more faithful, or better able to bring out the potential values in the work. A careful interpreter and evaluator can, through repeated contact with the work, come increasingly close to separating out idiosyncratic elements of her interpretations from what is proper to the work. Secondly, the aesthetic properties of the resulting concretization are not arbitrary inventions of the viewer, nor are they based on the pleasure she derives from the experience. Instead, their appearance simply requires a competent viewer to observe the work's neutral and artistic values in an aesthetic attitude. Thus here, as elsewhere, Ingarden's goal is ultimately to account for the legitimate role of consciousness in constituting many of the objects and properties experienced by us, while also avoiding a pure subjectivism or universal social constructivism by acknowledging the role of an independent 'real' world in founding the cultural objects and value properties we so often concern ourselves with in daily life. In addition to his work on the ontology of works of art and their values, Ingarden also engaged in directly phenomenological investigations into the nature of our experience of works of art of various kinds. For example, he examines our experience of literature in The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, of music in The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, and of aesthetic experience more generally (including experience of sculpture) in "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object". In each case he is concerned not only to offer a detailed analysis of the development of the relevant aesthetic experience (including its development over time), but also to contrast such aesthetic experiences with cases of ordinary sense perception, undertaken in what he calls a 'practical' or an 'investigating attitude' (1961, 295). Thanks to Ira Richardson for research assistance with the 2020 updated version of this entry. Bibliography A bibliography (compiled in 1985) of Ingarden's works in English, French, German and Polish and of secondary sources is available in the edition of Ingarden's Selected Papers in Aesthetics cited below. Select Works in German - Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1921. - Essentiale Fragen. Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Wesens, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1925. - "Bemerkungen zum Problem Idealismus-Realismus," Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung, Ergänzungsband: Festschrift, Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, Halle: 1929, pp. 159–190. - Das literarische Kunstwerk. Eine Untersuchung aus dem Grenzgebiet der Ontologie, Logik und Literaturwissenschaft, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1931. - Untersuchungen zur Ontologie der Kunst: Musikwerk. Bild. Architektur. Film, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1962. - Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Bd. I, II/1, II/2. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1964–1965. - Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968. - Erlebnis, Kunstwerk und Wert. Vorträge zur Ästhetik 1937–1967, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1969. - Über die Verantwortung. Ihre ontischen Fundamente, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970. - Über die kausale Struktur der realen Welt. Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Band III, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1974. Select Works in Polish - O poznawaniu dzieła literackiego (The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art), Ossolineum, Lwów: 1937. - O budowie obrazu. Szkic z teorii sztuki (On the Structure of the Painting: A Sketch in the Theory of Art), Rozprawy Wydziału Filozoficznego PAU, Volume LXVII, No. 2, Kraków, 1946. - "O dziele architektury" (On the Architectural Work of Art). Nauka i Sztuka, Volume II, No. 1, 1946, pp. 3–26 and No. 2, pp. 26–51. - Spór o istnienie śwaita (The Controversy over the Existence of the World), PAU, Volume I, Kraków: 1947, Vol. II, Kraków, 1948. - Szkice z filozofii literatury (Sketches in the Philosophy of Literature), Volume 1, Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Polonista," Łódź, 1947. - "Elementy dzieła muzycznego" (Elements of the Musical Work of Art), Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu, Volume IX, 1955, Nos. 1–4, pp. 82–84. - Studia z estetyki (Studies in Aesthetics), PWN, Volume I Warszawa, 1957, Volume II, Warszawa, 1958. - O dziele literackim (The Literary Work of Art), PWN, Warszawa, 1960. - Przeżycie – dzieło – wartość (Experience – Work of Art – Value), WL, Kraków, 1966. - Studia z estetyki, Tom III (Studies in Aesthetics, Vol. III), PWN, Warszawa, 1970. - U podstaw teorii poznania (Foundations of the Theory of Knowledge), PWN, Warszawa, 1971. - Książeczka o człowieku (Little Book on Man), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków, 1972. Select Works in English Translation - "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 21/3: 289–313, 1961. - The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, translated by Ruth Ann Crowley and Kenneth R. Olson, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - The Controversy over the Existence of the World, translated by Arthur Szylewicz. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013. - The Literary Work of Art, translated by George G. Grabowicz, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - "The Letter to Husserl about the VI [Logical] Investigation and 'Idealism'," in Tymieniecka, 1976, pp. 419–438. - "The Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", translated by Bernard Linsky. Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy Volume 6, No. 6, 2018. - Man and Value, translated by Arthur Szylewicz, München: Philosophia Verlag, 1983. - On the Motives which led Edmund Husserl to Transcendental Idealism, translated by Arnor Hannibalsson, The Hague: 1976. - The Ontology of the Work of Art, translated by Raymond Meyer with John T. Goldthwait, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1989. - Selected Papers in Aesthetics, Peter J. McCormick (ed.), München: Philosophia Verlag, 1985. - Time and Modes of Being, translated (from parts of Der Streit) by Helen R. Michejda, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. - The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, translated by A. Czerniawski. Houndmills, U.K.: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1986 Select Secondary Sources - Bundgaard, Peer F., 2013. "Roman Ingarden's Theory of Reader Experience: A Critical Assessment". Semiotica, 194: 171–188. - Chojna, Wojciech, 2017. Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Literature: A Phenomenological Account. Leiden: Brill Rodolpi. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz (ed.), 2005, Existence, Culture, Persons: The Ontology of Roman Ingarden, Frankfurt: Ontos. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz, 2015, "Ingarden on Modes of Being" in Denis Seron, Sebastien Richard and Bruno Leclercq (eds.), Objects and Pseudo-Objects: Ontological Deserts and Jungles from Brentano to Carnap, Berlin: DeGruyter, pp. 199–222. - DeSantis, Daniele, 2015, "Wesen, Eidos, Idea Remarks on the 'Platonism' of Jean Héring and Roman Ingarden." Studia Phaenomenologica 15: 155–180. - Dziemidok, B. and McCormick, P. (eds.), 1989, On the Aesthetics of Roman Ingarden: Interpretations and Assessments, Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ewing, A.C., 1926, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 35 (138): 250. - Gniazdowski, Andrzej, 2010, "Roman Ingarden," Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, Hans Rainer Sapp and Lester Embree (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 167–70. - Graff, P. and S. Krzemień-Ojak (eds.), 1975, Roman Ingarden and Contemporary Polish Aesthetics, Warsaw: PWN. - Husserl, Edmund, 1968, Briefe an Roman Ingarden, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Kobiela, Filip, 2019, "How Long Does the Present Last? The Problem of Fissuration in Roman Ingarden's Ontology," in Barthlomiej Skowron, ed., Contemporary Polish Ontology, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 51–70. - Küng, Guido, 1972, "Ingarden on Language and Ontology," Analecta Husserliana, 2: 204–217. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 1997, Roman Ingarden's Ontology and Aesthetics, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 2012, "Roman Ingarden: Aesthetics," Philosophy Compass, 7(7): 436–37. - Nowak, Andrzej and Lesnek Sosnowski (eds.), 2001, Dictionary of Roman Ingarden's Philosophical Concepts, Kraków: Institute of Philosophy, Jagellonian University. - Pelletier, Jeffry and Bernard Linsky. 2018. "Verification: The Hysteron Proteron Argument" in Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy, Volume 6 No 6. - Richard, Sébastian and Malherbe, Olivier (eds.), 2016. Form(s) and Modes of Being. The Ontology of Roman Ingarden. Berlin: Peter Lang. - Rudnik, Hans H. (ed.), 1990, Ingardeniana II: New Studies in the Philosophy of Roman Ingarden (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 30), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ryle, Gilbert, 1927, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 36 (143): 366–370. - Smith, Barry, 1978, "Roman Ingarden: Ontological Foundations for Literary Theory," in Language, Literature and Meaning (Volume I), J. Odmark (ed.), Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 373–390. - Spiegelberg, Herbert, 1982, The Phenomenological Movement, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Stein, Edith, 2014. Letters to Roman Ingarden, translated by Hugh Candler Hunt, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications. - Szyszkowska, Malgorzata, 2018, "Musical Phenomenology: Artistic Traditions and Everyday Experience". Avant IX/2: 141–55. - Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.), 1976, Ingardeniana (Analecta Husserliana, Volume IV), Dordrecht: D. Reidel. - ––– (ed.), 1991, Ingardeniana III: Roman Ingarden's Aesthetics in a New Key and the Independent Approaches of Others: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature, (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 33), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Uemura, Genki, 2019,"Demystifying Roman Ingarden's Purely Intentional Objects of Perception," in Shigeru Taguchi & Nicolas de Warren (eds.), New Phenomenological Studies in Japan. Springer Verlag. pp. 139–162. - Wellek, René, 1982, Four Critics: Croce, Valery, Lukács and Ingarden, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Academic Tools [How to cite this entry]. [Preview the PDF version of this entry]at the [Friends of the SEP Society]. [Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry]at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). [Enhanced bibliography for this entry]at [PhilPapers], with links to its database. Other Internet Resources [The Roman Ingarden Philosophical Research Center](http://ingarden.center.uj.edu.pl/en/the-roman-ingarden-philosophical-research-center/), Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Poland. [Roman Ingarden: Ontology as a Science on the Possible Ways of Existence](http://www.formalontology.it/ingardenr.htm), in Theory and History of Ontology, (maintained by Raul Corazzon) [Roman Ingarden](http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_Ingarden), in New World Encyclopedia. [Roman Witold Ingarden](https://www.porta-polonica.de/en/atlas-of-remembrance-places/roman-witold-ingarden), in Porta Polonica.

Roman Ingarden

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ingarden/

Roman Ingarden Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl's from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl's turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem, Ingarden developed ontological studies unmatched in scope and detail, distinguishing different kinds of dependence and different modes of being. He is best known, however, for his work in aesthetics, particularly on the ontology of the work of art and the status of aesthetic values, and is credited with being the founder of phenomenological aesthetics. His work The Literary Work of Art has been widely influential in literary theory as well as philosophical aesthetics, and has been crucial to the development of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory. [1. Life and Work](#LifeWork) [2. Ontology and Metaphysics](#OntoMeta) [3. Aesthetics](#Aest) [Bibliography](#Bib) [Academic Tools](#Aca) [Other Internet Resources](#Oth) [Related Entries](#Rel) 1. Life and Work Roman Witold Ingarden was born on February 5, 1893 in Kraków. He initially studied mathematics and philosophy in Lwów (now known as 'Lviv' and in Ukraine), and in 1912 went to Göttingen where he studied philosophy under Edmund Husserl, taking four semesters of seminars with Husserl, from 1912 to 1914, and again during the summer of 1915. Husserl considered Ingarden one of his best students, and the two remained in close touch until Husserl's death in 1938 (their philosophical correspondence was eventually published as Husserl's Briefe an Roman Ingarden). Ingarden also studied philosophy in Lwów with Kazimierz Twardowski (who, like Husserl, was a student of Franz Brentano). When Husserl accepted the chair at Freiburg, Ingarden followed him, submitting his dissertation "Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson" in 1917, for which he received his Ph.D. in 1918, with Husserl as director. After submitting his dissertation, Ingarden returned to Poland for the remainder of his academic career, first teaching mathematics, psychology and philosophy in secondary schools while he worked on his Habilitationschrift. That work, published as Essentiale Fragen in 1925, attracted some attention in the English speaking philosophical world, being reviewed twice in Mind (by A.C. Ewing in 1926 and by Gilbert Ryle in 1927). With the publication of his Habilitationschrift, Ingarden was appointed as Privatdozent at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów, where he was promoted to Professor in 1933. During this time his most well known work, The Literary Work of Art, was first published (1931, in German), followed by The Cognition of the Literary Work (1936, in Polish). His academic career was interrupted from 1941–1944, when (due to the war) the university was closed, and he secretly taught philosophy at the university, and mathematics to secondary school children in an orphanage. At the same time (and despite the bombing of his house in Lwów), Ingarden was working intensively on his magnum opus The Controversy over the Existence of the World (the first two volumes of which were published in Polish in 1947 and 1948 respectively). In 1945 he moved to Jagiellonian University in Kraków, where he was given a chair in 1946, however in 1949, (under Stalinization) he was banned from teaching because of his alleged "idealism" (ironically, a philosophical position against which Ingarden fought for most of his life) and for being an "enemy of materialism". The ban continued until 1957, at which point Ingarden was reappointed to his post at Jagiellonian University, where he taught until his retirement in 1963 and continued to write, publishing such works as The Ontology of the Work of Art (1962) and Experience, Artwork and Value (1969). Ingarden died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage on June 14, 1970, while still fully engaged in his philosophical projects. A careful, detailed, and fully documented account of Ingarden's biography may be found in [Mitscherling, 1997], which also does much to settle the inconsistencies in earlier partial accounts of Ingarden's life. Like many of Husserl's students from the Göttingen period, Ingarden is a realist phenomenologist who ardently resisted Husserl's apparent turn to transcendental idealism in the Ideas and thereafter. Although his training is phenomenological, his work on the whole is directed not towards understanding the basic structures of consciousness, but rather towards ontology. Indeed, Ingarden is one of the foremost practitioners of phenomenological ontology, which attempts to determine what the ontological structure and status of objects of various types must be, based on examining essential features of any experience that could present or provide knowledge of such objects—a method based in the assumption that there are essential correlations between kinds of objects and the modes of cognition by means of which they can be known. Ingarden's best-known works, indeed the only ones known to most of his readers in the English-speaking world, are his works on aesthetics, especially literature—works that offer unrivalledly sophisticated and subtle accounts both of the ontological status of works of art of various kinds, and of our means of cognizing them. His phenomenological approach to aesthetics strongly influenced the work of Michel Dufrennes, and there are also strong resonances between his work on the ontology of art and contemporary analytic work in aesthetics, e.g., by Joseph Margolis, Nelson Goodman and Jerrold Levinson. The Literary Work of Art has been particularly influential in literary studies, where its effects are visible in Wolfgang Kayser's work Das sprachliche Kunstwerk and in the development of the schools of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory in the work of such theorists as René Wellek and Wolfgang Iser, respectively. Nonetheless, the frequently exclusive focus on Ingarden's work in aesthetics is somewhat unfortunate and can be misleading about his overall philosophical focus and goals. For Ingarden produced an enormous body of work on a wide variety of topics. He raised early and important criticisms of what he called "methodological Positivism" in a paper delivered in 1934 to the 8th World Congress of Philosophy in Prague, where Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath were present as respondents. There Ingarden argues that, by the positivist's own lights, 'metalogical' sentences about sentences should be counted as meaningless, since sentences themselves are not mere physical objects (to be sentences they must have a certain sense), and yet the methodological Positivist accepts only sentences about the physical as intersubjectively verifiable. If on the other hand, we do consider sentences to be mere physical 'mounds of ink' or 'sound waves', then they would not be verifiable (this, he seems to be suggesting, would be something like a category mistake: how can one verify a heap of ink?). Moreover, he argues (in what Pelletier and Linsky (2018) identify as a version of the 'Hysteron Proteron Objection') that in order to decide whether a sentence is verifiable, one must first identify its meaning "independently of its verification". The paper is now translated into English as "A Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", and reprinted alongside the brief responses by Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath, and interesting contemporary discussion and evaluation by Pelletier and Linsky (2018), who suggest that Carnap never adequately responded to these criticisms. Ingarden also produced a large body of work in epistemology, ontology, metaphysics, phenomenology, and value theory. The relative obscurity of Ingarden's work in these other areas is attributable in part to the relative isolation and interruption of academic philosophy in Poland in the period of World War Two and Soviet occupation, and in part to language barriers. Before the second world war, Ingarden (being German trained) published his works mainly in German, thus his early works such as The Literary Work of Art appeared in German early in his career, and were to have a broad impact. But during the war, Ingarden (in a gesture of solidarity) switched to writing in Polish, a language speakers of English and other Western European languages were unlikely to read, and so his major works on ontology went largely unnoticed by the wider European and Anglo-American philosophical circles. His major work in ontology, The Controversy, for example, was not translated into German until 1964, and only in 2013 did Part 1 become fully available in English translation (an earlier partial translation was published in 1964 as Time and Modes of Being). Seen more as a whole, Ingarden's body of work revolves not around aesthetics, but rather around the realism/idealism problem — an issue that was to dominate his thinking ever since, as a young man, he recoiled against Husserl's transcendental idealism. As I will discuss in §3.1 below, Ingarden's work in aesthetics was actually motivated by his interest in the realism/idealism problem. His studies in fiction and the ontology of art were intended to form part of a large-scale argument against transcendental idealism, based in emphasizing the difference between 'real' entities entirely independent of our minds, and social and cultural entities that (as 'purely intentional objects') owe their existence, at least in part, to human consciousness — thus showing that, in virtue of the very meanings of the ideas involved, the 'real world' as a whole cannot be properly treated as a purely intentional object that owes its existence to consciousness. In developing a positive position, Ingarden sought a middle path between the reductive physicalist realisms popular among analytic philosophers, and the transcendental idealism adopted by Husserl, rejecting the simplistic bifurcation between entities that are 'mind-independent' and those that are 'merely subjective'. His most important and lasting contribution may lie in providing a richer ontological framework that could track the different ways in which many objects of the 'life-world' of daily experience depend on human intentionality and on mind-independent reality, and in developing a moderate realist position that offered room not only for independent physical reality and for consciousness, but also for the whole variety of life-world objects that owe their existence, in part, to both. 2. Ontology and Metaphysics Most of Ingarden's major work focuses on ontology, which he considers a purely a priori enterprise, concerned not with what actually exists, but with what could possibly exist (which concepts are non-contradictory), and with what (according to the contents of the relevant ideas) it would take for objects of various kinds to exist, or entail if they existed. He thus contrasts ontology with metaphysics, which is concerned with answering factual questions about what sorts of things actually exist and what they are like. Ontology, in Ingarden's hands, thus bears close resemblance to the sorts of conceptual analysis that became common in analytic philosophy in roughly the same period. Ingarden's work on the ontology of art is ontological in this sense, e.g. he attempts to determine, by analysis of the essential meanings of experiences that could present something as a work of literature, music, or architecture, what sort of an entity such an object would have to be to satisfy those experiences and meanings, and how it would have to relate to consciousness and physical objects. In his Habilitationscrhift, Essentiale Fragen (Essential Questions) from 1925 Ingarden "paves the way for his future metaphysics of the world", such as he later develops in The Controversy over the Existence of the World (de Santis 2015). In Essential Questions, the focus is on different ways in which one may ask questions about essences. Ingarden assumes (as was characteristic in the phenomenological tradition) that there is a correlation between types of judgment and entities judged about. He thus uses the differences in the sorts of judgments that would answer the various questions as the basis for distinguishing different categories of Ideas. (For further discussion, see de Santis 2015, Ryle 1927). 2.1 Criticisms of Transcendental Idealism Despite Ingarden's deep admiration for Husserl, one crucial issue — transcendental idealism — divided them. Indeed, Ingarden was already "tormented" by the problem for years before he completed his dissertation ["Letter," 422], and by 1918 had definitively determined that he could not share Husserl's transcendental idealism [Streit, vii]. Ingarden's concern with and rejection of transcendental idealism directly or indirectly determined the course of much of his later philosophical work, so much so that in 1961 he describes his process of working on idealism as one "which has been in fact occupying my entire scholarly life." ["Letter," 437]. The transcendental idealism Ingarden rejects is the position that the so-called 'real world' depends on consciousness for its existence and essence; that it exists only for consciousness and beyond that is a 'nothing'. While there is some debate among Husserl scholars over whether or not Husserl genuinely took the 'turn' to transcendental idealism in a metaphysical sense (as opposed to merely treating it as if it were true while undertaking the methodology of transcendental reduction), Ingarden clearly saw Husserl as turning from the realism of the Logical Investigations to a metaphysical form of transcendental idealism by the time the first volume of Ideas was published, and the two frequently debated this topic in letter and in person during the period from 1918–1938. Ingarden takes Husserl to have been driven to transcendental idealism largely by his epistemological goals and transcendental approach to phenomenology. If the very idea of three-dimensional external objects makes sense, it would be essential that our perceptions of them are inevitably inadequate: They may be presented from one point of view or another, but never exhaustively and entirely -- so room is always left open for new perceptions that would lead us to entirely revise our past judgments. Such objects thus would inherently transcend any finite set of experiences of them; no external object could be part of any experience of it, and any judgments we attempt to make about them would be open to doubt. Thus if phenomenology is to be a 'rigorous science' grounded only in what does not go beyond our experience, it must limit its study to objects of 'immanent perception', the meaningful series of (actual and possible) contents of consciousness rather than any supposedly transcendent objects presented by them. Moreover, as Husserl argues in §41 of the Cartesian Meditations, since the transcendental ego is the source of all sense, any meaning of 'transcendent object' 'outside of consciousness', etc. must be a meaning constructed through layerings of the senses of our conscious acts, and transcendental phenomenology can analyze how these meanings are built up out of other meanings of individual acts of perception and intention (e.g. 'is perceived from this angle', 'could be perceived from another angle, in these other ways', etc.) This is the meaning that the question e.g. 'is this object real?' may have from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology. Any attempt to go beyond this understanding of 'transcendent object' or 'real object outside of consciousness', however, to talk of something beyond what can be constituted by any actual or possible experience is literally going beyond what can be meaningfully asked; it is literally non-sense. The very idea of a world outside of and independent from all actual and possible experience is thus, from this point of view, an illegitimate concept, a kind of disguised nonsense. The only 'real world' of which we can legitimately speak, have knowledge, or enter into other intentional relations with is the 'real world' as constituted by, and essentially correlated with, meaningful series' of intentional acts. Ingarden accepted that, as long as we approach the realism problem from the standpoint of epistemology, or from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, there is no way out to establish the existence and knowledge of a mind-independent world. Nor, however, can one establish that the real world depends on consciousness, since any attempted talk about the world in-itself and its nature would be meaningless — thus from that standpoint, the controversy over the existence of the world would have to remain undecided. But he also thought that other approaches to philosophy were legitimate, and indeed that one should begin from ontology rather than epistemology. According to Ingarden, the realism/idealism problem is fundamentally a metaphysical problem (about the actual existence of the so-called 'real' world and its relation to consciousness), but may be non-circularly approached via ontology by examining what the possible sorts of relation between consciousness and the world could be. In particular, Ingarden hoped that an ontological approach to the realism/idealism problem could lead to a solution by attempting to identify what the possible modes of being would be of the 'real' world and of consciousness, and how the two could possibly be related. This was the motive for his monumental work in ontology, The Controversy over the Existence of the World, designed to describe the different possible modes of being and their possible interrelations, with a view to narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem. Unfortunately, the work was never fully completed (although the first two volumes were published and the third in progress at the time of Ingarden's death), but the portions that exist nonetheless contain many important and detailed ontological analyses valuable in their own right as well as having the potential to contribute to the discussion of the realism/idealism controversy. Prominent among these is his distinction between formal, material, and existential ontologies, and distinguishing 'modes of being' as highest existential categories. 2.2 Modes of Being Most traditional category systems, such as Aristotle's, lay out a single dimension of categories supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Ingarden, by contrast, develops a multi-dimensional category scheme by dividing ontology into three parts: formal, material and existential ontologies, corresponding to three distinct aspects that may be discerned in any entity (its formal structure, material nature, and mode of being respectively). These different formal, material and existential aspects of the object, studied by the different types of ontology, may thus be used to classify an object in any of three interpenetrating dimensions (although not all combinations among formal, material and existential modes are possible). The formal categories are marked by such familiar ontological divisions as those between objects, processes and relations. Following Husserl, in addition to these, Ingarden distinguishes material categories, with high-level material kinds including, e.g., works of art and real (spatio-temporal) objects. Finally, claiming there is an essential ambiguity in the term 'exists', Ingarden also goes on to distinguish different existential categories or "modes of being" — different ways in which entities may exist, e.g., dependently or independently, in time or not, contingently or necessarily, etc. The modes of being are defined in terms of different characteristic combinations of 'existential moments'. The existential moments mostly concern either an object's temporal determinations (or lack thereof), or the different dependencies it bears (or does not bear) to other sorts of object. In investigating the existential moments that characterize a temporal mode of being, Ingarden makes original contributions to work in the ontology and phenomenology of time, arguing that the past and future exist, but in a different mode of being than the present (for more on Ingarden's contribution to these debates see Kobiela 2019). In drawing out the different dependencies that an entity can bear on another, Ingarden goes beyond Husserl's influential work on dependence to distinguish four different existential moments of dependence (and their contrasting moments of independence): Contingency (the dependence of a separate entity on another in order to remain in existence); Derivation (the dependence of an entity on another in order to come into existence); Inseparateness (the dependence of an entity that can only exist if it coexists with something else in a single whole); and Heteronomy (the dependence of an entity for its existence and entire qualitative endowment on another). In so doing, Ingarden develops one of the richest and most detailed analyses of dependence ever offered, providing distinctions in the notion of dependence that can clarify many philosophical problems including but certainly not limited to the realism/idealism problem. Ingarden's four highest existential-ontological categories or 'modes of being' are: Absolute, Real, Ideal, and Purely Intentional. The absolute mode of being could be exhibited only by a being such as God, which could exist even if nothing else whatsoever ever existed. The ideal mode of being is a timeless mode of existence suitable for platonistically conceived numbers; the real mode of being is that of contingent spatio-temporal entities such as the realist assumes ordinary rocks and trees to be; while the purely intentional mode of being is that occupied by fictional characters and other entities which owe their existence and nature to acts of consciousness. Thus the realism/idealism controversy can be reconfigured as the controversy over whether the so-called 'real world' has the real or purely intentional mode of being. (For further discussion of the Purely Intentional mode of being and its role in the theory of perception, see Chrudzimski 2015 and Uemura 2019) 3. Aesthetics 3.1 The Literary Work of Art By far Ingarden's best-known and most influential work, especially in the English-speaking world, is The Literary Work of Art, which was written around 1926, and first published in German in 1931. It is fundamentally a work in ontology, in Ingarden's sense (see §2 above), laying out the essential features anything must have to be counted as a literary work, what parts it must have and how they are interrelated, and how such entities as literary works relate to other sorts of entities such as authors, copies of texts, readers, and ideal meanings. As with so much of Ingarden's philosophical work, he undertakes this study of the ontology of the literary work in part with the motive of utilizing its results to argue against transcendental idealism — indeed he conceived of The Literary Work of Art as a preliminary study for The Controversy. Literary works and the characters and objects represented in them were to provide examples of purely intentional objects — objects owing their existence and essence to consciousness. Thus a detailed study of works of literature and their represented objects could serve to explicate the purely intentional mode of being, with a view to contrasting this with the real mode of being and ultimately demonstrating that it is impossible to reduce the 'real world' to the status of a purely intentional creation. [Streit, vii-viii]. Nonetheless, this motive remains largely behind the scenes of the detailed studies of language and literature in The Literary Work of Art, which can be (and largely has been) described and evaluated without reference to these broader motives, as an independent contribution to aesthetics and literary theory. The work begins by attempting to determine the 'mode of existence' of the literary work — essentially the same problem that today goes under the heading of understanding the ontological status of works of literature, music, etc. In twelve concise pages, he provides compelling reasons to reject both attempts to identify literary works with "real" objects or events such as copies of texts or the psychological experiences of authors or readers, and attempts to identify them with platonistic "ideal" objects such as ordered manifolds of sentences or meanings. Each such attempted identification leads to various absurdities, e.g. the view literary works are physical objects would lead us to say that such works differ by chemical composition; the view that they are experiences of the author would make them completely unknowable, while the view that they are experiences of readers would prevent us from postulating a single work Hamlet known by many readers; and the view that they are ideal objects would entail that literary works may never be created and cannot be changed, even by their authors. As a result, works of literature cannot be classified in either of the major categories of objects accepted by traditional metaphysics — neither the categories of the real nor the ideal are suited for them. Any acceptable ontology of literature thus must accept entities of another category. As Ingarden ultimately argues towards the close of the text, the literary work is a "purely intentional formation," derived from the sentence-forming activities of its author(s), and founded on some public copy of these sentences, and also depending for its existence and essence on a relation to certain ideal meanings attached to the words of the text. While the question of the ontological status of the literary work forms the work's beginning, most of the details of the text are dedicated to drawing out an "essential anatomy" of the literary work, determining its essential parts and their relations to one another. Ingarden conceives of this task as preliminary to any questions of the values that works of literature may or may not have, as we will be better able to see where values of different types can inhere once we know what the different parts of the literary work are. According to Ingarden, every literary work is composed of four heterogeneous strata: - Word sounds and phonetic formations of higher order (including the typical rhythms and melodies associated with phrases, sentences and paragraphs of various kinds) - Meaning units (formed by conjoining the sounds employed in a language with ideal concepts; these also range from the individual meanings of words to the higher-order meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) - Schematized aspects (these are the visual, auditory, or other 'aspects' via which the characters and places represented in the work may be 'quasi-sensorially' apprehended) - Represented entities (the objects, events, states of affairs, etc. represented in the literary work and forming its characters, plot, etc.). Each of these strata has room for its own typical sorts of aesthetic value (or disvalue); thus we may distinguish the values of rhythm, alliteration, or mellifluousness at the level of word sounds, from the values in interesting (or jarring) juxtapositions of ideas and concepts at the level of meaning units, from the quasi-visual splendor of the scene presented, from the values of sympathetic or complex characters and intricate plots. The values of a literary work, however, are not exhausted by the separate values of its several strata, for the strata do not exist separately, but rather form an 'organic unity'. Among the strata are various forms of mutual dependence and influence, and the harmonies or disharmonies among the strata (e.g. between the halting rhythms of a character's speech and his timid personality) may contribute other aesthetic merits or demerits to the work. Most importantly, in cooperation with the other strata, the stratum of represented objects may present "metaphysical qualities" such as the tragic, the dreadful, the peaceful and so on, which characterize true works of art. The work of literature as a whole, thus, is a "polyphonic harmony," much like a piece of polyphonic music in which each singer's voice may lend aesthetic qualities of its own to the value of the whole, while the greatest values of the work as a whole may lie in the intricate interrelations among the values of all of the individual elements. A stratified theory like Ingarden's has considerable strengths. It provides a framework within which we can offer detailed analyses of literary works identifying their many sorts of value or disvalue, rather than simply passing judgment on the whole. As a result, many apparent conflicts in judgments of taste may be resolved without embracing subjectivism, by noting that the individuals concerned may be passing judgment on different strata of the literary work. It also enables us to understand stylistic differences among authors and over time as differences in which strata are emphasized and which de-emphasized, e.g. as many modernist works de-emphasize the traditionally foregrounded stratum of represented objects in favor of juxtaposed images at the level of schematized aspects (e.g. Virginia Woolf's The Waves), or even background both of these to the rhythms and sound patterns at the level of phonetic formations (e.g. Edith Sitwell's nonsense poetry). Yet we can do so without seeing such changes as forming a radical break or undermining the idea that these are all part of a continuous literary tradition. 3.2 The Musical Work, The Picture, The Architectural Work In 1928, immediately after writing The Literary Work of Art, Ingarden expanded his analyses of the ontology of art from literature, to also discuss music, painting, and architecture in a series of essays originally intended as an appendix to The Literary Work of Art. As it happened, however, the appendix was not published along with The Literary Work of Art, and remained dormant until after the war, when (in 1946) essays on the picture and the architectural work were published in Polish. The three studies were expanded and finally published in German in 1961, along with an article on film, and were not translated into English until 1989. The late date of their release and the fact that they remain little known is a great shame, as they address many of the same ontological issues as those debated in 'analytic' aesthetics, and provide not only compelling arguments against many popular positions but also analyses of the ontological structure of works of various kinds unsurpassed in subtlety and detail. The first three essays of The Ontology of the Work of Art, "The Musical Work," "The Picture," and "The Architectural Work" each attempt to determine the ontological status of the work of art in question, its relation to concrete entities such as copies of the score, sound events, painted canvasses or buildings, as well as to creative acts of artists and the conscious states of viewers. Each also examines whether and to what extent the form of art in question, like the literary work, may turn out to have a stratified structure. The musical work, Ingarden argues, is distinct from experiences of its composer and listeners, and cannot be identified with any individual sound event, performance or copy of the score. But nor can it be classified among ideal entities, since it is created by a composer at a certain time, not merely discovered [Ontology, 4–5]. It thus apparently falls between categories such as the 'real' and the 'ideal', and so accepting the existence of musical works (like literary works) seems to require us to accept the existence of things in a category distinct from either of those — that of purely intentional objects. The musical work is a purely intentional object with its 'source of being in the creative acts of the composer and its ontic foundation in the score' [Ontology, 91]. In itself, a traditionally scored work of Western music is a schematic formation full of places of indeterminacy (e.g. it may be indeterminate exactly how loudly a note is to be played, or how long it should be held), which are filled out differently in various performances. Unlike the literary work, however, the work of music is not a stratified entity, there being no essential representing function of the sounds of the musical work (unlike the sounds of a novel). The picture, too, is a purely intentional object, created by an artist and founded both in a real painting (a paint-covered canvas), and in the viewer's operations of apprehending it. The picture as a work of art cannot be identified with the real paint-covered canvas hanging in a gallery, for the two have different properties and different modes of cognitive accessibility. The picture can only be seen, and indeed only seen from certain points of view; the painting, by contrast, can be seen, smelled, heard, or even tasted, and can be observed from any point of view. Ingarden also holds that the picture as such (unlike the painting) is not an individual object of any sort -- one and the same picture may be presented in many paintings (if they are all perfect copies of an original). (It might be worth noting that while this is plausible enough for the picture, considered as such, we do typically treat works of visual art as one-off individual objects (distinct from perfect copies or forgeries).) Moreover, the picture, to be seen, requires that viewers take up a certain cognitive attitude regarding it, not required to observe the painting. "The Architectural Work" is perhaps the most interesting of the three major essays in the Ontology of the Work of Art, for it suggests how Ingarden's examination of works of art may be broadened out to form the framework for a general theory of social and cultural objects and their relations to the more basic physical objects posited by the natural sciences. The architectural work might seem to pose the crucial objection to Ingarden's view that works of art are 'purely intentional objects' having at least a foundation of their existence in the intentional states of their makers and viewers: "After all, the Notre Dame of Paris appears to be no less real than the many residential buildings that stand in its vicinity, than the island upon which it was built, the river that flows nearby, and so on" [255]. Nonetheless, even in this case, Ingarden argues, the architectural work is not a mere independent 'real' object, although it is founded on one (the 'heap of stones' forming its physical basis). For its existence as an architectural work requires not only its creation by an architect (rather than its coming into existence as a mere natural formation), but also requires the 'reconstructive acts of the viewer' taking up a certain attitude towards the real object and helping co-constitute its aesthetic and even its sensible properties. The work of architecture is thus a doubly founded object, which "refers back not only to the creative acts of the architect and the reconstructive acts of the viewer, but also to its ontic foundation in a fully determined real thing shaped in a particular way" [Ontology, 263]. (The fact that even such purely intentional objects as works of art of various kinds are founded not exclusively in consciousness, but also (in various ways) on real spatio-temporal objects, is also an important part of Ingarden's arguments against idealism, suggesting that even if the proper mode of being for the world of experience was purely intentional being, that still would not be sufficient to show that all that exists is a pure product of consciousness.) This situation for architecture parallels that for a great many of the social and cultural objects of our everyday experience in what Husserl called the 'life-world'. As Ingarden emphasizes, a flag, for example, should not be identified with the mere piece of cloth of which it is fashioned, for it has different essential properties, and has an additional foundation in the mental acts of the community that accept it as a flag and endow it with meanings and embed it in norms of action (e.g. we are not to clean pots with it but to use it in rendering military honors). Similarly, a church is not identical with the real building on which it is founded, but rather is created only through acts of consecration and the preservation of appropriate attitudes in the relevant community. In virtue of its secondary dependence on acts of consciousness, the church is endowed with various (social and cultural) properties and functions that a mere ordered heap of building materials cannot have. In this way Ingarden provides the basis for an account of the nature of cultural and social objects that takes neither the reductionist route of identifying them with their physical bases, nor the subjectivist route of treating all objects as mere social constructions. The life-world takes its unique place as the common product of acts of consciousness and an independent real world, and its existence (in quite specific ways) presupposes that of both of those foundations. 3.3 Aesthetic Objects, Aesthetic Values, and Aesthetic Experience In addition to his work on the ontology of art objects of various kinds, Ingarden also undertook general work on the ontological status of the aesthetic object and the nature of aesthetic values, as well as phenomenological work on the experience of works of art of various kinds. On the object side, as we have seen he distinguishes in each case between the mere physical object and the work of art; but he also distinguishes both of these from what he calls the "concretization" (sometimes translated as "concretion") of the work of art, which he considers to be the true 'aesthetic object'. The work of art itself, in the case of most forms of art such as literature, painting, or music, is what Ingarden calls a "schematic formation." That is, it has certain 'places of indeterminacy', many of which are filled in by an individual interpretation or 'reading' of the work. Thus in the case of literature, there are many places of indeterminacy at the level of character and plot — unlike in the case of real people, it is often simply indeterminate what a literary character had for breakfast, how far she sat back from the table, what the table was made of, etc. Such indeterminacies are generally partially filled in by the reader in reconstructing the work, as the reader's background assumptions help (at least partially) flesh out the skeletal imaginary scene directly presented by the words of the text. Similarly, a representational painting generally leaves indeterminate, e.g., what the back of the person's head looks like in the case of a portrait, what they are thinking, or what happens immediately before or after the moment visually represented in paintings of historical events. Yet again, viewers' reconstructive acts typically supplement these indeterminacies in various ways, e.g. automatically grasping the lower right corner of Breugel's 'Fall of Icarus' as presenting the moment between a fall from the sky and the complete disappearance of the body under water (not, e.g., as presenting an attempt at an underwater handstand). Finally, in the case of music, a score leaves indeterminate various elements such as the precise timbre and fullness of tone, and these are filled out in different ways in different performances of the work. In each case, (at least partially) filling in the indeterminacies of the work through a reading, performance, or viewing renders the work more 'concrete'. Each work of art permits of a variety of legitimate concretizations which, unlike the work of art itself, may vary from viewer to viewer. If the concretion occurs within the aesthetic attitude, an aesthetic object is formed [Selected Papers, 93], and so many aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art. Corresponding to this three-fold distinction between physical object, work of art, and aesthetic object, Ingarden posits a three-fold distinction among properties. While the mere physical object possesses only value-neutral physical properties, the work of art may possess both 'axiologically neutral' properties such as having a certain sentence structure or bearing patches of color arranged in certain ways, and artistic value qualities founded on these, such as clarity or obscurity of expression, technical mastery in the way the materials are worked, balance of composition, etc. Aesthetic values such as serenity, sublimity, profundity, etc., though they exist 'potentially' in the work of art, only manifest themselves in the aesthetic objects created through concretizing the work of art, and characterize the aesthetic object as a whole, although their appearance may depend on that of many particular properties of the work of art and physical object. Since various aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art, these may also differ in their aesthetic values. This can, at least in part, help account for the variety of aesthetic judgments that may be formed apparently concerning the same work of art. Yet as usual, Ingarden is concerned to account for the role of consciousness in constituting aesthetic values and the variations in aesthetic judgments without embracing a subjectivism that would deny that there is any better or worse in aesthetic judgment, each being a mere report of the pleasure experienced by the one judging. Such subjectivism is to be avoided by noting first, that some concretizations are better suited to the work's demands than others, more faithful, or better able to bring out the potential values in the work. A careful interpreter and evaluator can, through repeated contact with the work, come increasingly close to separating out idiosyncratic elements of her interpretations from what is proper to the work. Secondly, the aesthetic properties of the resulting concretization are not arbitrary inventions of the viewer, nor are they based on the pleasure she derives from the experience. Instead, their appearance simply requires a competent viewer to observe the work's neutral and artistic values in an aesthetic attitude. Thus here, as elsewhere, Ingarden's goal is ultimately to account for the legitimate role of consciousness in constituting many of the objects and properties experienced by us, while also avoiding a pure subjectivism or universal social constructivism by acknowledging the role of an independent 'real' world in founding the cultural objects and value properties we so often concern ourselves with in daily life. In addition to his work on the ontology of works of art and their values, Ingarden also engaged in directly phenomenological investigations into the nature of our experience of works of art of various kinds. For example, he examines our experience of literature in The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, of music in The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, and of aesthetic experience more generally (including experience of sculpture) in "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object". In each case he is concerned not only to offer a detailed analysis of the development of the relevant aesthetic experience (including its development over time), but also to contrast such aesthetic experiences with cases of ordinary sense perception, undertaken in what he calls a 'practical' or an 'investigating attitude' (1961, 295). Thanks to Ira Richardson for research assistance with the 2020 updated version of this entry. Bibliography A bibliography (compiled in 1985) of Ingarden's works in English, French, German and Polish and of secondary sources is available in the edition of Ingarden's Selected Papers in Aesthetics cited below. Select Works in German - Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1921. - Essentiale Fragen. Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Wesens, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1925. - "Bemerkungen zum Problem Idealismus-Realismus," Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung, Ergänzungsband: Festschrift, Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, Halle: 1929, pp. 159–190. - Das literarische Kunstwerk. Eine Untersuchung aus dem Grenzgebiet der Ontologie, Logik und Literaturwissenschaft, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1931. - Untersuchungen zur Ontologie der Kunst: Musikwerk. Bild. Architektur. Film, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1962. - Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Bd. I, II/1, II/2. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1964–1965. - Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968. - Erlebnis, Kunstwerk und Wert. Vorträge zur Ästhetik 1937–1967, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1969. - Über die Verantwortung. Ihre ontischen Fundamente, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970. - Über die kausale Struktur der realen Welt. Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Band III, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1974. Select Works in Polish - O poznawaniu dzieła literackiego (The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art), Ossolineum, Lwów: 1937. - O budowie obrazu. Szkic z teorii sztuki (On the Structure of the Painting: A Sketch in the Theory of Art), Rozprawy Wydziału Filozoficznego PAU, Volume LXVII, No. 2, Kraków, 1946. - "O dziele architektury" (On the Architectural Work of Art). Nauka i Sztuka, Volume II, No. 1, 1946, pp. 3–26 and No. 2, pp. 26–51. - Spór o istnienie śwaita (The Controversy over the Existence of the World), PAU, Volume I, Kraków: 1947, Vol. II, Kraków, 1948. - Szkice z filozofii literatury (Sketches in the Philosophy of Literature), Volume 1, Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Polonista," Łódź, 1947. - "Elementy dzieła muzycznego" (Elements of the Musical Work of Art), Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu, Volume IX, 1955, Nos. 1–4, pp. 82–84. - Studia z estetyki (Studies in Aesthetics), PWN, Volume I Warszawa, 1957, Volume II, Warszawa, 1958. - O dziele literackim (The Literary Work of Art), PWN, Warszawa, 1960. - Przeżycie – dzieło – wartość (Experience – Work of Art – Value), WL, Kraków, 1966. - Studia z estetyki, Tom III (Studies in Aesthetics, Vol. III), PWN, Warszawa, 1970. - U podstaw teorii poznania (Foundations of the Theory of Knowledge), PWN, Warszawa, 1971. - Książeczka o człowieku (Little Book on Man), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków, 1972. Select Works in English Translation - "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 21/3: 289–313, 1961. - The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, translated by Ruth Ann Crowley and Kenneth R. Olson, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - The Controversy over the Existence of the World, translated by Arthur Szylewicz. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013. - The Literary Work of Art, translated by George G. Grabowicz, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - "The Letter to Husserl about the VI [Logical] Investigation and 'Idealism'," in Tymieniecka, 1976, pp. 419–438. - "The Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", translated by Bernard Linsky. Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy Volume 6, No. 6, 2018. - Man and Value, translated by Arthur Szylewicz, München: Philosophia Verlag, 1983. - On the Motives which led Edmund Husserl to Transcendental Idealism, translated by Arnor Hannibalsson, The Hague: 1976. - The Ontology of the Work of Art, translated by Raymond Meyer with John T. Goldthwait, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1989. - Selected Papers in Aesthetics, Peter J. McCormick (ed.), München: Philosophia Verlag, 1985. - Time and Modes of Being, translated (from parts of Der Streit) by Helen R. Michejda, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. - The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, translated by A. Czerniawski. Houndmills, U.K.: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1986 Select Secondary Sources - Bundgaard, Peer F., 2013. "Roman Ingarden's Theory of Reader Experience: A Critical Assessment". Semiotica, 194: 171–188. - Chojna, Wojciech, 2017. Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Literature: A Phenomenological Account. Leiden: Brill Rodolpi. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz (ed.), 2005, Existence, Culture, Persons: The Ontology of Roman Ingarden, Frankfurt: Ontos. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz, 2015, "Ingarden on Modes of Being" in Denis Seron, Sebastien Richard and Bruno Leclercq (eds.), Objects and Pseudo-Objects: Ontological Deserts and Jungles from Brentano to Carnap, Berlin: DeGruyter, pp. 199–222. - DeSantis, Daniele, 2015, "Wesen, Eidos, Idea Remarks on the 'Platonism' of Jean Héring and Roman Ingarden." Studia Phaenomenologica 15: 155–180. - Dziemidok, B. and McCormick, P. (eds.), 1989, On the Aesthetics of Roman Ingarden: Interpretations and Assessments, Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ewing, A.C., 1926, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 35 (138): 250. - Gniazdowski, Andrzej, 2010, "Roman Ingarden," Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, Hans Rainer Sapp and Lester Embree (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 167–70. - Graff, P. and S. Krzemień-Ojak (eds.), 1975, Roman Ingarden and Contemporary Polish Aesthetics, Warsaw: PWN. - Husserl, Edmund, 1968, Briefe an Roman Ingarden, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Kobiela, Filip, 2019, "How Long Does the Present Last? The Problem of Fissuration in Roman Ingarden's Ontology," in Barthlomiej Skowron, ed., Contemporary Polish Ontology, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 51–70. - Küng, Guido, 1972, "Ingarden on Language and Ontology," Analecta Husserliana, 2: 204–217. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 1997, Roman Ingarden's Ontology and Aesthetics, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 2012, "Roman Ingarden: Aesthetics," Philosophy Compass, 7(7): 436–37. - Nowak, Andrzej and Lesnek Sosnowski (eds.), 2001, Dictionary of Roman Ingarden's Philosophical Concepts, Kraków: Institute of Philosophy, Jagellonian University. - Pelletier, Jeffry and Bernard Linsky. 2018. "Verification: The Hysteron Proteron Argument" in Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy, Volume 6 No 6. - Richard, Sébastian and Malherbe, Olivier (eds.), 2016. Form(s) and Modes of Being. The Ontology of Roman Ingarden. Berlin: Peter Lang. - Rudnik, Hans H. (ed.), 1990, Ingardeniana II: New Studies in the Philosophy of Roman Ingarden (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 30), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ryle, Gilbert, 1927, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 36 (143): 366–370. - Smith, Barry, 1978, "Roman Ingarden: Ontological Foundations for Literary Theory," in Language, Literature and Meaning (Volume I), J. Odmark (ed.), Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 373–390. - Spiegelberg, Herbert, 1982, The Phenomenological Movement, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Stein, Edith, 2014. Letters to Roman Ingarden, translated by Hugh Candler Hunt, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications. - Szyszkowska, Malgorzata, 2018, "Musical Phenomenology: Artistic Traditions and Everyday Experience". Avant IX/2: 141–55. - Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.), 1976, Ingardeniana (Analecta Husserliana, Volume IV), Dordrecht: D. Reidel. - ––– (ed.), 1991, Ingardeniana III: Roman Ingarden's Aesthetics in a New Key and the Independent Approaches of Others: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature, (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 33), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Uemura, Genki, 2019,"Demystifying Roman Ingarden's Purely Intentional Objects of Perception," in Shigeru Taguchi & Nicolas de Warren (eds.), New Phenomenological Studies in Japan. Springer Verlag. pp. 139–162. - Wellek, René, 1982, Four Critics: Croce, Valery, Lukács and Ingarden, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Academic Tools [How to cite this entry]. [Preview the PDF version of this entry]at the [Friends of the SEP Society]. [Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry]at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). [Enhanced bibliography for this entry]at [PhilPapers], with links to its database. Other Internet Resources [The Roman Ingarden Philosophical Research Center](http://ingarden.center.uj.edu.pl/en/the-roman-ingarden-philosophical-research-center/), Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Poland. [Roman Ingarden: Ontology as a Science on the Possible Ways of Existence](http://www.formalontology.it/ingardenr.htm), in Theory and History of Ontology, (maintained by Raul Corazzon) [Roman Ingarden](http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_Ingarden), in New World Encyclopedia. [Roman Witold Ingarden](https://www.porta-polonica.de/en/atlas-of-remembrance-places/roman-witold-ingarden), in Porta Polonica.

Roman Ingarden

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ingarden/

Roman Ingarden Roman Ingarden (1893–1970) was a Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician. A student of Edmund Husserl's from the Göttingen period, Ingarden was a realist phenomenologist who spent much of his career working against what he took to be Husserl's turn to transcendental idealism. As preparatory work for narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem, Ingarden developed ontological studies unmatched in scope and detail, distinguishing different kinds of dependence and different modes of being. He is best known, however, for his work in aesthetics, particularly on the ontology of the work of art and the status of aesthetic values, and is credited with being the founder of phenomenological aesthetics. His work The Literary Work of Art has been widely influential in literary theory as well as philosophical aesthetics, and has been crucial to the development of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory. [1. Life and Work](#LifeWork) [2. Ontology and Metaphysics](#OntoMeta) [3. Aesthetics](#Aest) [Bibliography](#Bib) [Academic Tools](#Aca) [Other Internet Resources](#Oth) [Related Entries](#Rel) 1. Life and Work Roman Witold Ingarden was born on February 5, 1893 in Kraków. He initially studied mathematics and philosophy in Lwów (now known as 'Lviv' and in Ukraine), and in 1912 went to Göttingen where he studied philosophy under Edmund Husserl, taking four semesters of seminars with Husserl, from 1912 to 1914, and again during the summer of 1915. Husserl considered Ingarden one of his best students, and the two remained in close touch until Husserl's death in 1938 (their philosophical correspondence was eventually published as Husserl's Briefe an Roman Ingarden). Ingarden also studied philosophy in Lwów with Kazimierz Twardowski (who, like Husserl, was a student of Franz Brentano). When Husserl accepted the chair at Freiburg, Ingarden followed him, submitting his dissertation "Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson" in 1917, for which he received his Ph.D. in 1918, with Husserl as director. After submitting his dissertation, Ingarden returned to Poland for the remainder of his academic career, first teaching mathematics, psychology and philosophy in secondary schools while he worked on his Habilitationschrift. That work, published as Essentiale Fragen in 1925, attracted some attention in the English speaking philosophical world, being reviewed twice in Mind (by A.C. Ewing in 1926 and by Gilbert Ryle in 1927). With the publication of his Habilitationschrift, Ingarden was appointed as Privatdozent at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwów, where he was promoted to Professor in 1933. During this time his most well known work, The Literary Work of Art, was first published (1931, in German), followed by The Cognition of the Literary Work (1936, in Polish). His academic career was interrupted from 1941–1944, when (due to the war) the university was closed, and he secretly taught philosophy at the university, and mathematics to secondary school children in an orphanage. At the same time (and despite the bombing of his house in Lwów), Ingarden was working intensively on his magnum opus The Controversy over the Existence of the World (the first two volumes of which were published in Polish in 1947 and 1948 respectively). In 1945 he moved to Jagiellonian University in Kraków, where he was given a chair in 1946, however in 1949, (under Stalinization) he was banned from teaching because of his alleged "idealism" (ironically, a philosophical position against which Ingarden fought for most of his life) and for being an "enemy of materialism". The ban continued until 1957, at which point Ingarden was reappointed to his post at Jagiellonian University, where he taught until his retirement in 1963 and continued to write, publishing such works as The Ontology of the Work of Art (1962) and Experience, Artwork and Value (1969). Ingarden died suddenly of a cerebral hemorrhage on June 14, 1970, while still fully engaged in his philosophical projects. A careful, detailed, and fully documented account of Ingarden's biography may be found in [Mitscherling, 1997], which also does much to settle the inconsistencies in earlier partial accounts of Ingarden's life. Like many of Husserl's students from the Göttingen period, Ingarden is a realist phenomenologist who ardently resisted Husserl's apparent turn to transcendental idealism in the Ideas and thereafter. Although his training is phenomenological, his work on the whole is directed not towards understanding the basic structures of consciousness, but rather towards ontology. Indeed, Ingarden is one of the foremost practitioners of phenomenological ontology, which attempts to determine what the ontological structure and status of objects of various types must be, based on examining essential features of any experience that could present or provide knowledge of such objects—a method based in the assumption that there are essential correlations between kinds of objects and the modes of cognition by means of which they can be known. Ingarden's best-known works, indeed the only ones known to most of his readers in the English-speaking world, are his works on aesthetics, especially literature—works that offer unrivalledly sophisticated and subtle accounts both of the ontological status of works of art of various kinds, and of our means of cognizing them. His phenomenological approach to aesthetics strongly influenced the work of Michel Dufrennes, and there are also strong resonances between his work on the ontology of art and contemporary analytic work in aesthetics, e.g., by Joseph Margolis, Nelson Goodman and Jerrold Levinson. The Literary Work of Art has been particularly influential in literary studies, where its effects are visible in Wolfgang Kayser's work Das sprachliche Kunstwerk and in the development of the schools of New Criticism and Reader Response Theory in the work of such theorists as René Wellek and Wolfgang Iser, respectively. Nonetheless, the frequently exclusive focus on Ingarden's work in aesthetics is somewhat unfortunate and can be misleading about his overall philosophical focus and goals. For Ingarden produced an enormous body of work on a wide variety of topics. He raised early and important criticisms of what he called "methodological Positivism" in a paper delivered in 1934 to the 8th World Congress of Philosophy in Prague, where Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath were present as respondents. There Ingarden argues that, by the positivist's own lights, 'metalogical' sentences about sentences should be counted as meaningless, since sentences themselves are not mere physical objects (to be sentences they must have a certain sense), and yet the methodological Positivist accepts only sentences about the physical as intersubjectively verifiable. If on the other hand, we do consider sentences to be mere physical 'mounds of ink' or 'sound waves', then they would not be verifiable (this, he seems to be suggesting, would be something like a category mistake: how can one verify a heap of ink?). Moreover, he argues (in what Pelletier and Linsky (2018) identify as a version of the 'Hysteron Proteron Objection') that in order to decide whether a sentence is verifiable, one must first identify its meaning "independently of its verification". The paper is now translated into English as "A Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", and reprinted alongside the brief responses by Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath, and interesting contemporary discussion and evaluation by Pelletier and Linsky (2018), who suggest that Carnap never adequately responded to these criticisms. Ingarden also produced a large body of work in epistemology, ontology, metaphysics, phenomenology, and value theory. The relative obscurity of Ingarden's work in these other areas is attributable in part to the relative isolation and interruption of academic philosophy in Poland in the period of World War Two and Soviet occupation, and in part to language barriers. Before the second world war, Ingarden (being German trained) published his works mainly in German, thus his early works such as The Literary Work of Art appeared in German early in his career, and were to have a broad impact. But during the war, Ingarden (in a gesture of solidarity) switched to writing in Polish, a language speakers of English and other Western European languages were unlikely to read, and so his major works on ontology went largely unnoticed by the wider European and Anglo-American philosophical circles. His major work in ontology, The Controversy, for example, was not translated into German until 1964, and only in 2013 did Part 1 become fully available in English translation (an earlier partial translation was published in 1964 as Time and Modes of Being). Seen more as a whole, Ingarden's body of work revolves not around aesthetics, but rather around the realism/idealism problem — an issue that was to dominate his thinking ever since, as a young man, he recoiled against Husserl's transcendental idealism. As I will discuss in §3.1 below, Ingarden's work in aesthetics was actually motivated by his interest in the realism/idealism problem. His studies in fiction and the ontology of art were intended to form part of a large-scale argument against transcendental idealism, based in emphasizing the difference between 'real' entities entirely independent of our minds, and social and cultural entities that (as 'purely intentional objects') owe their existence, at least in part, to human consciousness — thus showing that, in virtue of the very meanings of the ideas involved, the 'real world' as a whole cannot be properly treated as a purely intentional object that owes its existence to consciousness. In developing a positive position, Ingarden sought a middle path between the reductive physicalist realisms popular among analytic philosophers, and the transcendental idealism adopted by Husserl, rejecting the simplistic bifurcation between entities that are 'mind-independent' and those that are 'merely subjective'. His most important and lasting contribution may lie in providing a richer ontological framework that could track the different ways in which many objects of the 'life-world' of daily experience depend on human intentionality and on mind-independent reality, and in developing a moderate realist position that offered room not only for independent physical reality and for consciousness, but also for the whole variety of life-world objects that owe their existence, in part, to both. 2. Ontology and Metaphysics Most of Ingarden's major work focuses on ontology, which he considers a purely a priori enterprise, concerned not with what actually exists, but with what could possibly exist (which concepts are non-contradictory), and with what (according to the contents of the relevant ideas) it would take for objects of various kinds to exist, or entail if they existed. He thus contrasts ontology with metaphysics, which is concerned with answering factual questions about what sorts of things actually exist and what they are like. Ontology, in Ingarden's hands, thus bears close resemblance to the sorts of conceptual analysis that became common in analytic philosophy in roughly the same period. Ingarden's work on the ontology of art is ontological in this sense, e.g. he attempts to determine, by analysis of the essential meanings of experiences that could present something as a work of literature, music, or architecture, what sort of an entity such an object would have to be to satisfy those experiences and meanings, and how it would have to relate to consciousness and physical objects. In his Habilitationscrhift, Essentiale Fragen (Essential Questions) from 1925 Ingarden "paves the way for his future metaphysics of the world", such as he later develops in The Controversy over the Existence of the World (de Santis 2015). In Essential Questions, the focus is on different ways in which one may ask questions about essences. Ingarden assumes (as was characteristic in the phenomenological tradition) that there is a correlation between types of judgment and entities judged about. He thus uses the differences in the sorts of judgments that would answer the various questions as the basis for distinguishing different categories of Ideas. (For further discussion, see de Santis 2015, Ryle 1927). 2.1 Criticisms of Transcendental Idealism Despite Ingarden's deep admiration for Husserl, one crucial issue — transcendental idealism — divided them. Indeed, Ingarden was already "tormented" by the problem for years before he completed his dissertation ["Letter," 422], and by 1918 had definitively determined that he could not share Husserl's transcendental idealism [Streit, vii]. Ingarden's concern with and rejection of transcendental idealism directly or indirectly determined the course of much of his later philosophical work, so much so that in 1961 he describes his process of working on idealism as one "which has been in fact occupying my entire scholarly life." ["Letter," 437]. The transcendental idealism Ingarden rejects is the position that the so-called 'real world' depends on consciousness for its existence and essence; that it exists only for consciousness and beyond that is a 'nothing'. While there is some debate among Husserl scholars over whether or not Husserl genuinely took the 'turn' to transcendental idealism in a metaphysical sense (as opposed to merely treating it as if it were true while undertaking the methodology of transcendental reduction), Ingarden clearly saw Husserl as turning from the realism of the Logical Investigations to a metaphysical form of transcendental idealism by the time the first volume of Ideas was published, and the two frequently debated this topic in letter and in person during the period from 1918–1938. Ingarden takes Husserl to have been driven to transcendental idealism largely by his epistemological goals and transcendental approach to phenomenology. If the very idea of three-dimensional external objects makes sense, it would be essential that our perceptions of them are inevitably inadequate: They may be presented from one point of view or another, but never exhaustively and entirely -- so room is always left open for new perceptions that would lead us to entirely revise our past judgments. Such objects thus would inherently transcend any finite set of experiences of them; no external object could be part of any experience of it, and any judgments we attempt to make about them would be open to doubt. Thus if phenomenology is to be a 'rigorous science' grounded only in what does not go beyond our experience, it must limit its study to objects of 'immanent perception', the meaningful series of (actual and possible) contents of consciousness rather than any supposedly transcendent objects presented by them. Moreover, as Husserl argues in §41 of the Cartesian Meditations, since the transcendental ego is the source of all sense, any meaning of 'transcendent object' 'outside of consciousness', etc. must be a meaning constructed through layerings of the senses of our conscious acts, and transcendental phenomenology can analyze how these meanings are built up out of other meanings of individual acts of perception and intention (e.g. 'is perceived from this angle', 'could be perceived from another angle, in these other ways', etc.) This is the meaning that the question e.g. 'is this object real?' may have from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology. Any attempt to go beyond this understanding of 'transcendent object' or 'real object outside of consciousness', however, to talk of something beyond what can be constituted by any actual or possible experience is literally going beyond what can be meaningfully asked; it is literally non-sense. The very idea of a world outside of and independent from all actual and possible experience is thus, from this point of view, an illegitimate concept, a kind of disguised nonsense. The only 'real world' of which we can legitimately speak, have knowledge, or enter into other intentional relations with is the 'real world' as constituted by, and essentially correlated with, meaningful series' of intentional acts. Ingarden accepted that, as long as we approach the realism problem from the standpoint of epistemology, or from within the standpoint of transcendental phenomenology, there is no way out to establish the existence and knowledge of a mind-independent world. Nor, however, can one establish that the real world depends on consciousness, since any attempted talk about the world in-itself and its nature would be meaningless — thus from that standpoint, the controversy over the existence of the world would have to remain undecided. But he also thought that other approaches to philosophy were legitimate, and indeed that one should begin from ontology rather than epistemology. According to Ingarden, the realism/idealism problem is fundamentally a metaphysical problem (about the actual existence of the so-called 'real' world and its relation to consciousness), but may be non-circularly approached via ontology by examining what the possible sorts of relation between consciousness and the world could be. In particular, Ingarden hoped that an ontological approach to the realism/idealism problem could lead to a solution by attempting to identify what the possible modes of being would be of the 'real' world and of consciousness, and how the two could possibly be related. This was the motive for his monumental work in ontology, The Controversy over the Existence of the World, designed to describe the different possible modes of being and their possible interrelations, with a view to narrowing down possible solutions to the realism/idealism problem. Unfortunately, the work was never fully completed (although the first two volumes were published and the third in progress at the time of Ingarden's death), but the portions that exist nonetheless contain many important and detailed ontological analyses valuable in their own right as well as having the potential to contribute to the discussion of the realism/idealism controversy. Prominent among these is his distinction between formal, material, and existential ontologies, and distinguishing 'modes of being' as highest existential categories. 2.2 Modes of Being Most traditional category systems, such as Aristotle's, lay out a single dimension of categories supposed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Ingarden, by contrast, develops a multi-dimensional category scheme by dividing ontology into three parts: formal, material and existential ontologies, corresponding to three distinct aspects that may be discerned in any entity (its formal structure, material nature, and mode of being respectively). These different formal, material and existential aspects of the object, studied by the different types of ontology, may thus be used to classify an object in any of three interpenetrating dimensions (although not all combinations among formal, material and existential modes are possible). The formal categories are marked by such familiar ontological divisions as those between objects, processes and relations. Following Husserl, in addition to these, Ingarden distinguishes material categories, with high-level material kinds including, e.g., works of art and real (spatio-temporal) objects. Finally, claiming there is an essential ambiguity in the term 'exists', Ingarden also goes on to distinguish different existential categories or "modes of being" — different ways in which entities may exist, e.g., dependently or independently, in time or not, contingently or necessarily, etc. The modes of being are defined in terms of different characteristic combinations of 'existential moments'. The existential moments mostly concern either an object's temporal determinations (or lack thereof), or the different dependencies it bears (or does not bear) to other sorts of object. In investigating the existential moments that characterize a temporal mode of being, Ingarden makes original contributions to work in the ontology and phenomenology of time, arguing that the past and future exist, but in a different mode of being than the present (for more on Ingarden's contribution to these debates see Kobiela 2019). In drawing out the different dependencies that an entity can bear on another, Ingarden goes beyond Husserl's influential work on dependence to distinguish four different existential moments of dependence (and their contrasting moments of independence): Contingency (the dependence of a separate entity on another in order to remain in existence); Derivation (the dependence of an entity on another in order to come into existence); Inseparateness (the dependence of an entity that can only exist if it coexists with something else in a single whole); and Heteronomy (the dependence of an entity for its existence and entire qualitative endowment on another). In so doing, Ingarden develops one of the richest and most detailed analyses of dependence ever offered, providing distinctions in the notion of dependence that can clarify many philosophical problems including but certainly not limited to the realism/idealism problem. Ingarden's four highest existential-ontological categories or 'modes of being' are: Absolute, Real, Ideal, and Purely Intentional. The absolute mode of being could be exhibited only by a being such as God, which could exist even if nothing else whatsoever ever existed. The ideal mode of being is a timeless mode of existence suitable for platonistically conceived numbers; the real mode of being is that of contingent spatio-temporal entities such as the realist assumes ordinary rocks and trees to be; while the purely intentional mode of being is that occupied by fictional characters and other entities which owe their existence and nature to acts of consciousness. Thus the realism/idealism controversy can be reconfigured as the controversy over whether the so-called 'real world' has the real or purely intentional mode of being. (For further discussion of the Purely Intentional mode of being and its role in the theory of perception, see Chrudzimski 2015 and Uemura 2019) 3. Aesthetics 3.1 The Literary Work of Art By far Ingarden's best-known and most influential work, especially in the English-speaking world, is The Literary Work of Art, which was written around 1926, and first published in German in 1931. It is fundamentally a work in ontology, in Ingarden's sense (see §2 above), laying out the essential features anything must have to be counted as a literary work, what parts it must have and how they are interrelated, and how such entities as literary works relate to other sorts of entities such as authors, copies of texts, readers, and ideal meanings. As with so much of Ingarden's philosophical work, he undertakes this study of the ontology of the literary work in part with the motive of utilizing its results to argue against transcendental idealism — indeed he conceived of The Literary Work of Art as a preliminary study for The Controversy. Literary works and the characters and objects represented in them were to provide examples of purely intentional objects — objects owing their existence and essence to consciousness. Thus a detailed study of works of literature and their represented objects could serve to explicate the purely intentional mode of being, with a view to contrasting this with the real mode of being and ultimately demonstrating that it is impossible to reduce the 'real world' to the status of a purely intentional creation. [Streit, vii-viii]. Nonetheless, this motive remains largely behind the scenes of the detailed studies of language and literature in The Literary Work of Art, which can be (and largely has been) described and evaluated without reference to these broader motives, as an independent contribution to aesthetics and literary theory. The work begins by attempting to determine the 'mode of existence' of the literary work — essentially the same problem that today goes under the heading of understanding the ontological status of works of literature, music, etc. In twelve concise pages, he provides compelling reasons to reject both attempts to identify literary works with "real" objects or events such as copies of texts or the psychological experiences of authors or readers, and attempts to identify them with platonistic "ideal" objects such as ordered manifolds of sentences or meanings. Each such attempted identification leads to various absurdities, e.g. the view literary works are physical objects would lead us to say that such works differ by chemical composition; the view that they are experiences of the author would make them completely unknowable, while the view that they are experiences of readers would prevent us from postulating a single work Hamlet known by many readers; and the view that they are ideal objects would entail that literary works may never be created and cannot be changed, even by their authors. As a result, works of literature cannot be classified in either of the major categories of objects accepted by traditional metaphysics — neither the categories of the real nor the ideal are suited for them. Any acceptable ontology of literature thus must accept entities of another category. As Ingarden ultimately argues towards the close of the text, the literary work is a "purely intentional formation," derived from the sentence-forming activities of its author(s), and founded on some public copy of these sentences, and also depending for its existence and essence on a relation to certain ideal meanings attached to the words of the text. While the question of the ontological status of the literary work forms the work's beginning, most of the details of the text are dedicated to drawing out an "essential anatomy" of the literary work, determining its essential parts and their relations to one another. Ingarden conceives of this task as preliminary to any questions of the values that works of literature may or may not have, as we will be better able to see where values of different types can inhere once we know what the different parts of the literary work are. According to Ingarden, every literary work is composed of four heterogeneous strata: - Word sounds and phonetic formations of higher order (including the typical rhythms and melodies associated with phrases, sentences and paragraphs of various kinds) - Meaning units (formed by conjoining the sounds employed in a language with ideal concepts; these also range from the individual meanings of words to the higher-order meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc.) - Schematized aspects (these are the visual, auditory, or other 'aspects' via which the characters and places represented in the work may be 'quasi-sensorially' apprehended) - Represented entities (the objects, events, states of affairs, etc. represented in the literary work and forming its characters, plot, etc.). Each of these strata has room for its own typical sorts of aesthetic value (or disvalue); thus we may distinguish the values of rhythm, alliteration, or mellifluousness at the level of word sounds, from the values in interesting (or jarring) juxtapositions of ideas and concepts at the level of meaning units, from the quasi-visual splendor of the scene presented, from the values of sympathetic or complex characters and intricate plots. The values of a literary work, however, are not exhausted by the separate values of its several strata, for the strata do not exist separately, but rather form an 'organic unity'. Among the strata are various forms of mutual dependence and influence, and the harmonies or disharmonies among the strata (e.g. between the halting rhythms of a character's speech and his timid personality) may contribute other aesthetic merits or demerits to the work. Most importantly, in cooperation with the other strata, the stratum of represented objects may present "metaphysical qualities" such as the tragic, the dreadful, the peaceful and so on, which characterize true works of art. The work of literature as a whole, thus, is a "polyphonic harmony," much like a piece of polyphonic music in which each singer's voice may lend aesthetic qualities of its own to the value of the whole, while the greatest values of the work as a whole may lie in the intricate interrelations among the values of all of the individual elements. A stratified theory like Ingarden's has considerable strengths. It provides a framework within which we can offer detailed analyses of literary works identifying their many sorts of value or disvalue, rather than simply passing judgment on the whole. As a result, many apparent conflicts in judgments of taste may be resolved without embracing subjectivism, by noting that the individuals concerned may be passing judgment on different strata of the literary work. It also enables us to understand stylistic differences among authors and over time as differences in which strata are emphasized and which de-emphasized, e.g. as many modernist works de-emphasize the traditionally foregrounded stratum of represented objects in favor of juxtaposed images at the level of schematized aspects (e.g. Virginia Woolf's The Waves), or even background both of these to the rhythms and sound patterns at the level of phonetic formations (e.g. Edith Sitwell's nonsense poetry). Yet we can do so without seeing such changes as forming a radical break or undermining the idea that these are all part of a continuous literary tradition. 3.2 The Musical Work, The Picture, The Architectural Work In 1928, immediately after writing The Literary Work of Art, Ingarden expanded his analyses of the ontology of art from literature, to also discuss music, painting, and architecture in a series of essays originally intended as an appendix to The Literary Work of Art. As it happened, however, the appendix was not published along with The Literary Work of Art, and remained dormant until after the war, when (in 1946) essays on the picture and the architectural work were published in Polish. The three studies were expanded and finally published in German in 1961, along with an article on film, and were not translated into English until 1989. The late date of their release and the fact that they remain little known is a great shame, as they address many of the same ontological issues as those debated in 'analytic' aesthetics, and provide not only compelling arguments against many popular positions but also analyses of the ontological structure of works of various kinds unsurpassed in subtlety and detail. The first three essays of The Ontology of the Work of Art, "The Musical Work," "The Picture," and "The Architectural Work" each attempt to determine the ontological status of the work of art in question, its relation to concrete entities such as copies of the score, sound events, painted canvasses or buildings, as well as to creative acts of artists and the conscious states of viewers. Each also examines whether and to what extent the form of art in question, like the literary work, may turn out to have a stratified structure. The musical work, Ingarden argues, is distinct from experiences of its composer and listeners, and cannot be identified with any individual sound event, performance or copy of the score. But nor can it be classified among ideal entities, since it is created by a composer at a certain time, not merely discovered [Ontology, 4–5]. It thus apparently falls between categories such as the 'real' and the 'ideal', and so accepting the existence of musical works (like literary works) seems to require us to accept the existence of things in a category distinct from either of those — that of purely intentional objects. The musical work is a purely intentional object with its 'source of being in the creative acts of the composer and its ontic foundation in the score' [Ontology, 91]. In itself, a traditionally scored work of Western music is a schematic formation full of places of indeterminacy (e.g. it may be indeterminate exactly how loudly a note is to be played, or how long it should be held), which are filled out differently in various performances. Unlike the literary work, however, the work of music is not a stratified entity, there being no essential representing function of the sounds of the musical work (unlike the sounds of a novel). The picture, too, is a purely intentional object, created by an artist and founded both in a real painting (a paint-covered canvas), and in the viewer's operations of apprehending it. The picture as a work of art cannot be identified with the real paint-covered canvas hanging in a gallery, for the two have different properties and different modes of cognitive accessibility. The picture can only be seen, and indeed only seen from certain points of view; the painting, by contrast, can be seen, smelled, heard, or even tasted, and can be observed from any point of view. Ingarden also holds that the picture as such (unlike the painting) is not an individual object of any sort -- one and the same picture may be presented in many paintings (if they are all perfect copies of an original). (It might be worth noting that while this is plausible enough for the picture, considered as such, we do typically treat works of visual art as one-off individual objects (distinct from perfect copies or forgeries).) Moreover, the picture, to be seen, requires that viewers take up a certain cognitive attitude regarding it, not required to observe the painting. "The Architectural Work" is perhaps the most interesting of the three major essays in the Ontology of the Work of Art, for it suggests how Ingarden's examination of works of art may be broadened out to form the framework for a general theory of social and cultural objects and their relations to the more basic physical objects posited by the natural sciences. The architectural work might seem to pose the crucial objection to Ingarden's view that works of art are 'purely intentional objects' having at least a foundation of their existence in the intentional states of their makers and viewers: "After all, the Notre Dame of Paris appears to be no less real than the many residential buildings that stand in its vicinity, than the island upon which it was built, the river that flows nearby, and so on" [255]. Nonetheless, even in this case, Ingarden argues, the architectural work is not a mere independent 'real' object, although it is founded on one (the 'heap of stones' forming its physical basis). For its existence as an architectural work requires not only its creation by an architect (rather than its coming into existence as a mere natural formation), but also requires the 'reconstructive acts of the viewer' taking up a certain attitude towards the real object and helping co-constitute its aesthetic and even its sensible properties. The work of architecture is thus a doubly founded object, which "refers back not only to the creative acts of the architect and the reconstructive acts of the viewer, but also to its ontic foundation in a fully determined real thing shaped in a particular way" [Ontology, 263]. (The fact that even such purely intentional objects as works of art of various kinds are founded not exclusively in consciousness, but also (in various ways) on real spatio-temporal objects, is also an important part of Ingarden's arguments against idealism, suggesting that even if the proper mode of being for the world of experience was purely intentional being, that still would not be sufficient to show that all that exists is a pure product of consciousness.) This situation for architecture parallels that for a great many of the social and cultural objects of our everyday experience in what Husserl called the 'life-world'. As Ingarden emphasizes, a flag, for example, should not be identified with the mere piece of cloth of which it is fashioned, for it has different essential properties, and has an additional foundation in the mental acts of the community that accept it as a flag and endow it with meanings and embed it in norms of action (e.g. we are not to clean pots with it but to use it in rendering military honors). Similarly, a church is not identical with the real building on which it is founded, but rather is created only through acts of consecration and the preservation of appropriate attitudes in the relevant community. In virtue of its secondary dependence on acts of consciousness, the church is endowed with various (social and cultural) properties and functions that a mere ordered heap of building materials cannot have. In this way Ingarden provides the basis for an account of the nature of cultural and social objects that takes neither the reductionist route of identifying them with their physical bases, nor the subjectivist route of treating all objects as mere social constructions. The life-world takes its unique place as the common product of acts of consciousness and an independent real world, and its existence (in quite specific ways) presupposes that of both of those foundations. 3.3 Aesthetic Objects, Aesthetic Values, and Aesthetic Experience In addition to his work on the ontology of art objects of various kinds, Ingarden also undertook general work on the ontological status of the aesthetic object and the nature of aesthetic values, as well as phenomenological work on the experience of works of art of various kinds. On the object side, as we have seen he distinguishes in each case between the mere physical object and the work of art; but he also distinguishes both of these from what he calls the "concretization" (sometimes translated as "concretion") of the work of art, which he considers to be the true 'aesthetic object'. The work of art itself, in the case of most forms of art such as literature, painting, or music, is what Ingarden calls a "schematic formation." That is, it has certain 'places of indeterminacy', many of which are filled in by an individual interpretation or 'reading' of the work. Thus in the case of literature, there are many places of indeterminacy at the level of character and plot — unlike in the case of real people, it is often simply indeterminate what a literary character had for breakfast, how far she sat back from the table, what the table was made of, etc. Such indeterminacies are generally partially filled in by the reader in reconstructing the work, as the reader's background assumptions help (at least partially) flesh out the skeletal imaginary scene directly presented by the words of the text. Similarly, a representational painting generally leaves indeterminate, e.g., what the back of the person's head looks like in the case of a portrait, what they are thinking, or what happens immediately before or after the moment visually represented in paintings of historical events. Yet again, viewers' reconstructive acts typically supplement these indeterminacies in various ways, e.g. automatically grasping the lower right corner of Breugel's 'Fall of Icarus' as presenting the moment between a fall from the sky and the complete disappearance of the body under water (not, e.g., as presenting an attempt at an underwater handstand). Finally, in the case of music, a score leaves indeterminate various elements such as the precise timbre and fullness of tone, and these are filled out in different ways in different performances of the work. In each case, (at least partially) filling in the indeterminacies of the work through a reading, performance, or viewing renders the work more 'concrete'. Each work of art permits of a variety of legitimate concretizations which, unlike the work of art itself, may vary from viewer to viewer. If the concretion occurs within the aesthetic attitude, an aesthetic object is formed [Selected Papers, 93], and so many aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art. Corresponding to this three-fold distinction between physical object, work of art, and aesthetic object, Ingarden posits a three-fold distinction among properties. While the mere physical object possesses only value-neutral physical properties, the work of art may possess both 'axiologically neutral' properties such as having a certain sentence structure or bearing patches of color arranged in certain ways, and artistic value qualities founded on these, such as clarity or obscurity of expression, technical mastery in the way the materials are worked, balance of composition, etc. Aesthetic values such as serenity, sublimity, profundity, etc., though they exist 'potentially' in the work of art, only manifest themselves in the aesthetic objects created through concretizing the work of art, and characterize the aesthetic object as a whole, although their appearance may depend on that of many particular properties of the work of art and physical object. Since various aesthetic objects may be based on one and the same work of art, these may also differ in their aesthetic values. This can, at least in part, help account for the variety of aesthetic judgments that may be formed apparently concerning the same work of art. Yet as usual, Ingarden is concerned to account for the role of consciousness in constituting aesthetic values and the variations in aesthetic judgments without embracing a subjectivism that would deny that there is any better or worse in aesthetic judgment, each being a mere report of the pleasure experienced by the one judging. Such subjectivism is to be avoided by noting first, that some concretizations are better suited to the work's demands than others, more faithful, or better able to bring out the potential values in the work. A careful interpreter and evaluator can, through repeated contact with the work, come increasingly close to separating out idiosyncratic elements of her interpretations from what is proper to the work. Secondly, the aesthetic properties of the resulting concretization are not arbitrary inventions of the viewer, nor are they based on the pleasure she derives from the experience. Instead, their appearance simply requires a competent viewer to observe the work's neutral and artistic values in an aesthetic attitude. Thus here, as elsewhere, Ingarden's goal is ultimately to account for the legitimate role of consciousness in constituting many of the objects and properties experienced by us, while also avoiding a pure subjectivism or universal social constructivism by acknowledging the role of an independent 'real' world in founding the cultural objects and value properties we so often concern ourselves with in daily life. In addition to his work on the ontology of works of art and their values, Ingarden also engaged in directly phenomenological investigations into the nature of our experience of works of art of various kinds. For example, he examines our experience of literature in The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, of music in The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, and of aesthetic experience more generally (including experience of sculpture) in "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object". In each case he is concerned not only to offer a detailed analysis of the development of the relevant aesthetic experience (including its development over time), but also to contrast such aesthetic experiences with cases of ordinary sense perception, undertaken in what he calls a 'practical' or an 'investigating attitude' (1961, 295). Thanks to Ira Richardson for research assistance with the 2020 updated version of this entry. Bibliography A bibliography (compiled in 1985) of Ingarden's works in English, French, German and Polish and of secondary sources is available in the edition of Ingarden's Selected Papers in Aesthetics cited below. Select Works in German - Intuition und Intellekt bei Henri Bergson, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1921. - Essentiale Fragen. Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Wesens, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1925. - "Bemerkungen zum Problem Idealismus-Realismus," Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung, Ergänzungsband: Festschrift, Edmund Husserl zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet, Halle: 1929, pp. 159–190. - Das literarische Kunstwerk. Eine Untersuchung aus dem Grenzgebiet der Ontologie, Logik und Literaturwissenschaft, Halle: Max Niemeyer, 1931. - Untersuchungen zur Ontologie der Kunst: Musikwerk. Bild. Architektur. Film, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1962. - Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Bd. I, II/1, II/2. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1964–1965. - Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1968. - Erlebnis, Kunstwerk und Wert. Vorträge zur Ästhetik 1937–1967, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1969. - Über die Verantwortung. Ihre ontischen Fundamente, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970. - Über die kausale Struktur der realen Welt. Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt, Band III, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1974. Select Works in Polish - O poznawaniu dzieła literackiego (The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art), Ossolineum, Lwów: 1937. - O budowie obrazu. Szkic z teorii sztuki (On the Structure of the Painting: A Sketch in the Theory of Art), Rozprawy Wydziału Filozoficznego PAU, Volume LXVII, No. 2, Kraków, 1946. - "O dziele architektury" (On the Architectural Work of Art). Nauka i Sztuka, Volume II, No. 1, 1946, pp. 3–26 and No. 2, pp. 26–51. - Spór o istnienie śwaita (The Controversy over the Existence of the World), PAU, Volume I, Kraków: 1947, Vol. II, Kraków, 1948. - Szkice z filozofii literatury (Sketches in the Philosophy of Literature), Volume 1, Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Polonista," Łódź, 1947. - "Elementy dzieła muzycznego" (Elements of the Musical Work of Art), Sprawozdania Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu, Volume IX, 1955, Nos. 1–4, pp. 82–84. - Studia z estetyki (Studies in Aesthetics), PWN, Volume I Warszawa, 1957, Volume II, Warszawa, 1958. - O dziele literackim (The Literary Work of Art), PWN, Warszawa, 1960. - Przeżycie – dzieło – wartość (Experience – Work of Art – Value), WL, Kraków, 1966. - Studia z estetyki, Tom III (Studies in Aesthetics, Vol. III), PWN, Warszawa, 1970. - U podstaw teorii poznania (Foundations of the Theory of Knowledge), PWN, Warszawa, 1971. - Książeczka o człowieku (Little Book on Man), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków, 1972. Select Works in English Translation - "Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Object", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 21/3: 289–313, 1961. - The Cognition of the Literary Work of Art, translated by Ruth Ann Crowley and Kenneth R. Olson, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - The Controversy over the Existence of the World, translated by Arthur Szylewicz. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013. - The Literary Work of Art, translated by George G. Grabowicz, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1973. - "The Letter to Husserl about the VI [Logical] Investigation and 'Idealism'," in Tymieniecka, 1976, pp. 419–438. - "The Logical Attempt at a New Formulation of Philosophy: A Critical Remark", translated by Bernard Linsky. Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy Volume 6, No. 6, 2018. - Man and Value, translated by Arthur Szylewicz, München: Philosophia Verlag, 1983. - On the Motives which led Edmund Husserl to Transcendental Idealism, translated by Arnor Hannibalsson, The Hague: 1976. - The Ontology of the Work of Art, translated by Raymond Meyer with John T. Goldthwait, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1989. - Selected Papers in Aesthetics, Peter J. McCormick (ed.), München: Philosophia Verlag, 1985. - Time and Modes of Being, translated (from parts of Der Streit) by Helen R. Michejda, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. - The Work of Music and the Problem of its Identity, translated by A. Czerniawski. Houndmills, U.K.: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1986 Select Secondary Sources - Bundgaard, Peer F., 2013. "Roman Ingarden's Theory of Reader Experience: A Critical Assessment". Semiotica, 194: 171–188. - Chojna, Wojciech, 2017. Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Literature: A Phenomenological Account. Leiden: Brill Rodolpi. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz (ed.), 2005, Existence, Culture, Persons: The Ontology of Roman Ingarden, Frankfurt: Ontos. - Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz, 2015, "Ingarden on Modes of Being" in Denis Seron, Sebastien Richard and Bruno Leclercq (eds.), Objects and Pseudo-Objects: Ontological Deserts and Jungles from Brentano to Carnap, Berlin: DeGruyter, pp. 199–222. - DeSantis, Daniele, 2015, "Wesen, Eidos, Idea Remarks on the 'Platonism' of Jean Héring and Roman Ingarden." Studia Phaenomenologica 15: 155–180. - Dziemidok, B. and McCormick, P. (eds.), 1989, On the Aesthetics of Roman Ingarden: Interpretations and Assessments, Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ewing, A.C., 1926, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 35 (138): 250. - Gniazdowski, Andrzej, 2010, "Roman Ingarden," Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics, Hans Rainer Sapp and Lester Embree (eds.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 167–70. - Graff, P. and S. Krzemień-Ojak (eds.), 1975, Roman Ingarden and Contemporary Polish Aesthetics, Warsaw: PWN. - Husserl, Edmund, 1968, Briefe an Roman Ingarden, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Kobiela, Filip, 2019, "How Long Does the Present Last? The Problem of Fissuration in Roman Ingarden's Ontology," in Barthlomiej Skowron, ed., Contemporary Polish Ontology, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 51–70. - Küng, Guido, 1972, "Ingarden on Language and Ontology," Analecta Husserliana, 2: 204–217. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 1997, Roman Ingarden's Ontology and Aesthetics, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. - Mitscherling, Jeff, 2012, "Roman Ingarden: Aesthetics," Philosophy Compass, 7(7): 436–37. - Nowak, Andrzej and Lesnek Sosnowski (eds.), 2001, Dictionary of Roman Ingarden's Philosophical Concepts, Kraków: Institute of Philosophy, Jagellonian University. - Pelletier, Jeffry and Bernard Linsky. 2018. "Verification: The Hysteron Proteron Argument" in Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy, Volume 6 No 6. - Richard, Sébastian and Malherbe, Olivier (eds.), 2016. Form(s) and Modes of Being. The Ontology of Roman Ingarden. Berlin: Peter Lang. - Rudnik, Hans H. (ed.), 1990, Ingardeniana II: New Studies in the Philosophy of Roman Ingarden (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 30), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Ryle, Gilbert, 1927, Review of Essentiale Fragen, Mind, 36 (143): 366–370. - Smith, Barry, 1978, "Roman Ingarden: Ontological Foundations for Literary Theory," in Language, Literature and Meaning (Volume I), J. Odmark (ed.), Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 373–390. - Spiegelberg, Herbert, 1982, The Phenomenological Movement, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. - Stein, Edith, 2014. Letters to Roman Ingarden, translated by Hugh Candler Hunt, Washington, D.C.: ICS Publications. - Szyszkowska, Malgorzata, 2018, "Musical Phenomenology: Artistic Traditions and Everyday Experience". Avant IX/2: 141–55. - Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa (ed.), 1976, Ingardeniana (Analecta Husserliana, Volume IV), Dordrecht: D. Reidel. - ––– (ed.), 1991, Ingardeniana III: Roman Ingarden's Aesthetics in a New Key and the Independent Approaches of Others: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature, (Analecta Husserliana, Volume 33), Dordrecht: Kluwer. - Uemura, Genki, 2019,"Demystifying Roman Ingarden's Purely Intentional Objects of Perception," in Shigeru Taguchi & Nicolas de Warren (eds.), New Phenomenological Studies in Japan. Springer Verlag. pp. 139–162. - Wellek, René, 1982, Four Critics: Croce, Valery, Lukács and Ingarden, Seattle: University of Washington Press. Academic Tools [How to cite this entry]. [Preview the PDF version of this entry]at the [Friends of the SEP Society]. [Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry]at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). [Enhanced bibliography for this entry]at [PhilPapers], with links to its database. Other Internet Resources [The Roman Ingarden Philosophical Research Center](http://ingarden.center.uj.edu.pl/en/the-roman-ingarden-philosophical-research-center/), Faculty of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Poland. [Roman Ingarden: Ontology as a Science on the Possible Ways of Existence](http://www.formalontology.it/ingardenr.htm), in Theory and History of Ontology, (maintained by Raul Corazzon) [Roman Ingarden](http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_Ingarden), in New World Encyclopedia. [Roman Witold Ingarden](https://www.porta-polonica.de/en/atlas-of-remembrance-places/roman-witold-ingarden), in Porta Polonica.

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Despite attempts by the social media Masters of the Universe to censor conservative viewpoints, the social media engagement experts at NewsWhip have listed Breitbart News as one of the top ten Facebook publishers for October 2018. According to the recently released NewsWhip rankings for October of 2018, Breitbart News has entered the top ten publishers on Facebook, ranking alongside CNN, Fox News, the New York Times, and the Washington Post. Breitbart's ranking as the tenth most engaging publisher on Facebook is the highest rank the site has ever attained, and a jump from number 15 in September. NewsWhip explained its rankings system, stating: "Our rankings come from NewsWhip Analytics. The analysis examines English-language content from publishers, ranked by Facebook likes, shares, and comments to their web content. We do not combine network publishers with their local outlets or other subsidiary domains." Below is a chart showing NewsWhip's rankings of Facebook publishers for October 2018: NewsWhip notes that in the month of October, viral Facebook publishers LAD bible and UNILAD — which previously topped the NewsWhip charts — fell to #13 and #17 respectively in October showing how politically focused much of Facebook was during the month. NewsWhip notes that all of the top ten publishers saw significant boosts in their engagement figures from September, with Breitbart News receiving 14,495,655 engagements in September and 19,003,827 engagements in October: The Breitbart News website has also seen incredible growth in recent months with October 2018 ranking amongst the sites top five most trafficked months in the history of the site. Breitbart News is currently the [51st most trafficked website](https://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/breitbart.com) in the United States according to rankings provided by the Amazon-owned [digital traffic statistics website Alexa.com.](https://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/breitbart.com) Lucas Nolan is a reporter for Breitbart News covering issues of free speech and online censorship. Follow him on Twitter [@LucasNolan](http://twitter.com/lucasnolan_) or email him at [[email protected]](https://www.breitbart.com/)

Townhall

http://townhall.com/news/

Audio 5 Minutes at the Top of the Hour Latest news stories from around the world brought to you at the top of the hour [Listen Now »](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/srn-hourly-news-07-01-24-0700-pm-cdt/) News [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/news/) [Biden Debate Backlash Raises GOP Prospects In Senate](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-debate-backlash-raises-gop-prospects-in-senate/) [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-debate-backlash-raises-gop-prospects-in-senate/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/07/DBT-RACES-agnew-vcr-MONpm.mp3?x21115) [SCOTUS Ruling A Setback For Trump's Democrat Opponents](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/scotus-ruling-a-setback-for-trumps-democrat-opponents/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 1:05 pm [Senate Democrats Standing Firm Behind Biden Despite Debate Debacle](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/senate-democrats-standing-firm-behind-biden-despite-debate-debacle/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 1:01 pm [Ben Domenech On Biden: "Right Now This Guy Can't Do The Job"](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/ben-domenech-on-biden-right-now-this-guy-cant-do-the-job/)Fri, Jun 28, 2024 at 12:42 pm Greg Clugston SRN News White House correspondent [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/greg-clugston/) [Biden calls Supreme Court immunity decision "dangerous"](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-calls-supreme-court-immunity-decision-dangerous/) President Biden says the Supreme Court's ruling on presidential immunity sets a "dangerous precedent" for America. Hours after justices issued their historic 6-3 ruling granting former presidents broad protection from prosecution, President Biden said the principle that no one is above the law "fundamentally changed." He said the public had a "right to know" about Donald Trump's role in the January 6th U-S Capitol riot, but that voters probably won't have that chance before the election. [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-calls-supreme-court-immunity-decision-dangerous/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/07/BIDEN-SCOTUS-IMMUNITY-clug-w1-MONpm-7-1.mp3?x21115) [Supreme Court rules that former presidents have some immunity](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/supreme-court-rules-that-former-presidents-have-some-immunity/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 11:00 am [High court sends Trump immunity case back to lower court](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/high-court-sends-trump-immunity-case-back-to-lower-court/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 10:50 am [Supreme Court sends two social media cases back to lower courts](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/supreme-court-sends-two-social-media-cases-back-to-lower-courts/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 10:45 am Bob Agnew SRN News U.S. Senate correspondent [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/bob-agnew/) [Biden Debate Backlash Raises GOP Prospects In Senate](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-debate-backlash-raises-gop-prospects-in-senate/) [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/biden-debate-backlash-raises-gop-prospects-in-senate/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/07/DBT-RACES-agnew-vcr-MONpm.mp3?x21115) [SCOTUS Ruling A Setback For Trump's Democrat Opponents](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/scotus-ruling-a-setback-for-trumps-democrat-opponents/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 1:05 pm [Senate Democrats Standing Firm Behind Biden Despite Debate Debacle](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/senate-democrats-standing-firm-behind-biden-despite-debate-debacle/)Mon, Jul 1, 2024 at 1:01 pm [Ben Domenech On Biden: "Right Now This Guy Can't Do The Job"](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/ben-domenech-on-biden-right-now-this-guy-cant-do-the-job/)Fri, Jun 28, 2024 at 12:42 pm Bernie Bennett SRN News U.S. House correspondent [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/bernie-bennett/) [Trump and Youngkin Meet at Virginia Rally](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/trump-and-youngkin-meet-at-virginia-rally/) Former President Trump and Gov. Glenn Youngkin will appear together for the first time in a Virginia rally. Correspondent Bernie Bennett has details. [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/trump-and-youngkin-meet-at-virginia-rally/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/06/TRUMP-YOUNGKIN-bennett-v-THUpm.mp3?x21115) [Candidates Threatened](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/candidates-threatened/)Thu, Jun 27, 2024 at 10:10 pm [RFK Jr. Debate](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/rfk-jr-debate/)Thu, Jun 27, 2024 at 10:08 pm [HOUSE-DEFENSE BILL](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/house-defense-bill/)Sat, Jun 15, 2024 at 5:29 am Michael Harrington SRN News religion desk editor [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/michael-harrington/) [British nurses fight transgenderism](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/british-nurses-fight-transgenderism/) British nurses fight transgenderism VERBATIM: Five women who work at Darlington Memorial Hospital say they are being forced to share a changing room with a man who is living as a woman. They have filed suit against Britain's national healthcare system for sexual harrassment and sex discrimination. The nurses say when they complained about having to change in the presence of a man, their supervisors told them to "broaden their mindset" and be more inclusive. Michael Harrington, SRN News. [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/british-nurses-fight-transgenderism/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/06/THR-6-27-NURSES-V.mp3?x21115) [One New York county takes a stand against transgenderism](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/one-new-york-county-takes-a-stand-against-transgenderism/)Thu, Jun 27, 2024 at 9:27 am [Israelis seek the gospel](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/israelis-seek-the-gospel/)Mon, Jun 24, 2024 at 7:13 am [The Far East is a growing mission field](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/the-far-east-is-a-growing-mission-field/)Mon, Jun 24, 2024 at 7:12 am Business [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/business/) [WALL STREET BUSINESS REPORT 7-1](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/wall-street-business-report-7-1/) WALL STREET BUSINESS REPORT 7-1 [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/wall-street-business-report-7-1/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/07/AM-WALL-STREET-BIZ-REPORT-MON-7-1-24.mp3?x21115) [WALL STREET BUSINESS REPORT 6-28](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/wall-street-business-report-6-28/)Fri, Jun 28, 2024 at 5:37 am [WALL STREET BUSINESS REPORT 6-27](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/wall-street-business-report-6-27/)Thu, Jun 27, 2024 at 5:46 am [WALL STREET BUSINESS REPORT 6-26](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/wall-street-business-report-6-26/)Wed, Jun 26, 2024 at 5:36 am Sports [View More »](https://srnnews.com/audio/sports/) [AM SPORTS CAST 7-1](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/am-sports-cast-7-1/) AM SPORTSCAST 7-1 [Listen](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/am-sports-cast-7-1/) [Download](https://www.srnnews.com/media/2024/07/AM-SPORTSCAST-7-1.mp3?x21115) [AM SPORTSCAST 6-27](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/am-sportscast-6-27/)Thu, Jun 27, 2024 at 6:38 am [AM SPORTSCAST 6-26](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/am-sportscast-6-26/)Wed, Jun 26, 2024 at 5:36 am [AM SPORTSCAST 6-25](https://srnnews.com/audio-news/am-sportscast-6-25/)Tue, Jun 25, 2024 at 5:35 am Follow SRNNews.com [Subscribe to our Newsletters](https://srnnews.com/subscribe/) [RSS Feeds](https://srnnews.com/rss-feeds/) Editorial Cartoons [View More »](https://srnnews.com/opinion/cartoons/) Steve Breen Fri, Jun 28, 2024

Townhall

http://media.guardian.co.uk/site/story/0,14173,1601858,00.html

WPP group chief executive Sir [Martin Sorrell](https://www.theguardian.com/media/sir-martin-sorrell) has accused traditional media owners such as Rupert Murdoch of panic-buying internet companies because of falling ad revenues. Sir Martin, the country's most influential advertising man and in charge of the world's second largest ad group, said there was "deep cause for concern" among TV and newspaper owners. Speaking at Engage 2005, the Internet [Advertising](https://www.theguardian.com/media/advertising) Bureau's inaugural online marketing conference, he said it was "intriguing to speculate" why Mr Murdoch, the chairman and chief executive of News Corporation, had launched a multimillion dollar internet shopping spree, and accused him of buying web operations "willy-nilly". "In the last two or three months he has decided to spend or try to spend I think it is about $5bn on internet properties of various sorts," said Sir Martin. "This was the second attempt by Murdoch and News Corp to penetrate this [market]. He must have been panicking because he even said he might hire [management consultants] McKinsey to help him out with his strategy. "Why is it that he is so preoccupied with this and willing it appears to make investments almost willy-nilly? I think I can use the word panic - that is probably overdoing it but maybe I am not." Mr Murdoch's News Corp began its $1bn new media spending spree in July when it bought Intermix, the US firm behind internet offerings including myspace.com, a two-year-old website which allows friends to share weblogs, photos, instant messages and music online. The following month News Corp subsidiary Fox Media Interactive snapped up US online and magazine sports publisher Scout Media, and then in September the company bought online video gaming company IGN Entertainment. And earlier this week, UK satellite broadcaster BSkyB, in which News Corp is the largest shareholder, paid £221m for broadband outfit Easynet. Sir Martin said there was a "considerable degree of panic" among traditional media owners over the speed of the onset of the digital age. "I think they see circulation figures, TV viewing figures and revenue figures that give them deep cause for concern," he said. "Over the last couple of years I cannot recall seeing a very happy media owner, certainly not of the traditional type. They are all worried about what is going on." Sir Martin said the scale and speed of the digital revolution was "faster and bigger than we could have anticipated". He said newspapers had succeeded in putting their content onto the internet, but had only just woken up to the fact that they also had to charge for it. He used the example of the New York Times, where he said earnings were down 50%. "Everyone has been consumed by sales and numbers of hits and market share rather than with profitability," he added. Sir Martin warned that TV networks could "no longer increase the price of advertising more than the level of general price inflation". "The media industry is in a tremendous state of flux. Look at the experience of the major networks [in the US]. NBC dropped $900m in revenue. At its heart is the issue that how can traditional media continue to charge more for less? "That issue has accelerated to a far greater degree than even what we thought 12 or 24 months ago. The problem is that most of these companies are run by 50 to 60-year-olds who have difficulty in getting it and really don't want major change on their watch." Sir Martin has long been a proponent of the growing importance of the economies in the Far East, and in particular China. As an example of its size and willingness to embrace technological change, Sir Martin said 800m phone votes had been cast in China's equivalent of Pop Idol, Supergirl - twice the number of mobile phones in the country. "It is true that China is only 4% of the worldwide advertising market, and it is true that the internet is only 4% of the worldwide advertising market. But both these things are changing at a tremendous pace which I don't think we fully understand. "Saying, well, the next generation, my kids, and my grandkids, are going to have very different media consumption patterns is a little bit of a cop-out. It's actually happening now." · To contact the MediaGuardian newsdesk email [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected]) or phone 020 7239 9857 · If you are writing a comment for publication, please mark clearly "for publication".

Townhall

http://www.cleveland.com/open/index.ssf/2015/06/republican_presidential_candid.html

Breitbart News Breitbart News is among the media that consultants and staffers for Republican candidates talk to, as do their bosses, to deal more directly with the conservative base. WASHINGTON, D.C. -- Jim Jordan is a conservative's conservative, with a rare lifetime rating of 100 -- a perfect score -- from the [American Conservative Union](http://conservative.org/). So the Republican congressman seemed like a good guy to ask: When you want conservative news and viewpoints, where do you turn? Jordan, from Champaign County, Ohio, took out his iPhone to answer. Look at the apps, he said, pointing to an uncluttered screen. There was an icon for [Politico](http://www.politico.com/), a Washington, D.C., political news outfit that displays no bias other than wanting the scoop, all day, every day. Interpretation: Jordan, 51, an unassuming-looking man who favors shirtsleeves while his colleagues keep their suit coats on, watches Washington's political chessboard. But there was also an app for [Fox News](http://www.foxnews.com/). And one for the [Drudge Report](http://www.drudgereport.com/). "You read Drudge, don't you?" Jordan asked. If you follow politics and culture, enjoy a bit of outrage and want to know when there's a whiff of hypocrisy, often involving liberals, you probably do. Likewise, many conservatives stay in tune with Fox and its mix of news and opinionated personalities. But did you know that U.S. Sen. Marco Rubio, a Florida Republican with a skillfully crafted campaign, gave an interview to a web-based outlet called [Breitbart News](http://www.breitbart.com/) shortly before announcing that he was running for president? Do you even know what Breitbart News is? Maybe you caught Jeb Bush -- or Scott Walker, Bobby Jindal, Ben Carson, John Kasich or any other Republican who matters -- on [Hugh Hewitt's syndicated radio show](http://www.hughhewitt.com/). That's assuming that you listen to Hewitt, described by Republican political operatives as cerebral and important. This is a story about, and a guide to, conservative media. They are already playing roles in helping candidates communicate with donors and voters leading up to the 2016 Republican National Convention in Cleveland. Not all outlets are created equal in the segmented mediascape of 2015. Some are more opinionated than others -- or, to be fair and balanced about it, some are proudly open about biases and thrive on discussing why. Academics say they fear an "echo chamber" effect as Americans select news sources that fit their preconceived notions and tune out others. Ideological broadcasts and websites are given to flame-throwing to marginalize the other side. But political pros who work on campaigns say that they use these media to get out specific talking points or tap a vein of donations. As for credibility in this slice of media, Ohio State University journalism professor Gerald Kosicki said, "Credibility is kind of a narrow perspective in that sense." The left does it too. Heavily so. But before this digresses into an MSNBC-vs.-Fox-vs.-PBS debate (feel free to comment below), the list here is in service of the road to RNC 2016: The Republican National Convention in Cleveland. Politicians who will be there already pay attention to these outlets, and are giving them interviews you might be unaware of. You may agree or disagree with their viewpoints. But if you want to understand where they're coming from when they hit the North Coast -- an army of red in deep-blue territory -- here's your chance. This selection resulted from conversations with conservatives including Republican campaign consultants and aides. In no particular order: [Fox News:](http://www.foxnews.com/) This is the the biggie and, like Rush Limbaugh's radio program, barely needs mentioning because you know it already. "The O'Reilly Factor," Bill O'Reilly's nightly show (8 p.m. and 11 p.m.), is king of talk TV ratings, and can get more than 3 million viewers a night. Most of them are voters. Many are donors. And politicians want to reach them all. Just a short guest spot on "O'Reilly" can trigger $50,000 in donations shooting into a candidate's website, said Barry Bennett, a political consultant who manages Carson's presidential campaign and runs a super PAC, the [Fighting for Ohio Fund](http://www.fightingforohio.com/about.php), supporting U.S. Sen. Rob Portman's reelection. [Breitbart News](http://www.breitbart.com/): Originally a website run by the late Andrew Breitbart, a conservative blogger and commentator, this has turned into a news/opinion video site with its own reporters and contributors -- and with a high outrage quotient. Examples include this: ["Hillary Clinton caught in another email lie,"](http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2015/05/18/hillary-caught-in-another-email-lie-new-docs-reveal-she-used-second-private-account-while-sec-of-state/) a story that relies upon New York Times reporting -- even though Breitbart is known to make fun of mainstream media including the New York Times. Breitbart.com can be a cornucopia of fun, facts and opinion; who can resist, ["After losing to Jay Leno, David Letterman's bitterness cost him his Indiana soul," ](http://www.breitbart.com/big-hollywood/2015/05/20/after-losing-to-jay-leno-david-lettermans-bitterness-cost-him-his-indiana-soul/)by editor-at-large John Nolte? Breitbart's audience size is not publicly available, but conservatives mention the site consistently and believe its audience is large, which helps it attract presidential candidates for interviews and campaign strategists for strategic leaks. [Hugh Hewitt's syndicated radio show](http://www.hughhewitt.com/): Hugh Hewitt has built a following with mainstream Republicans and mainstream media (whose members are occasional guests) thanks to his sharp-minded, generally non-acerbic approach. He's got a Harvard education, a Michigan Law degree and a side gig teaching constitutional law -- so he sometimes plays the role of prosecutor to his guests, as an unusual but [delicious exchange](http://www.hughhewitt.com/mother-jones-david-corn-on-his-bill-oreilly-reporting-and-himself/#more-26206) (no matter who you think is right) earlier this year with David Corn of Mother Jones shows. Hewitt grew up in Warren, Ohio and [lists](http://www.hughhewitt.com/about-hugh-hewitt/) Cleveland and Ohio State sports among his passions. He's got a "cerebral" approach, as one campaign consultant put it, which helps him get anyone and everyone worthy of a national GOP audience. National Journal [called Hewitt ](http://www.nationaljournal.com/magazine/hugh-hewitt-show-republican-pundit-20150313)the GOP's "go-to pundit." Come September, you'll see the silver-haired Hewitt posing questions with CNN at the second Republican presidential debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California -- an institution whose construction Hewitt oversaw. Hewitt's show is on [various radio stations](http://www.hughhewitt.com/find-a-station/) including WHK-1420 in Cleveland at 6 p.m. weeknights, or on his [website](http://www.hughhewitt.com/), which also features transcripts, or on his [mobile app](http://www.hughhewitt.com/hugh-hewitt-mobile-app/). [Mark Levin's radio show:](http://www.marklevinshow.com/) You've no doubt heard of [Sean Hannity](http://www.hannity.com/main.html) and [Laura Ingraham](http://www.lauraingraham.com/), significant players in conservative media. But have you heard of Mark Levin (pronounced LeVIN)? He's an attorney, author, conservative talker, former Reagan administration official and president of the [Landmark Legal Foundation](http://www.landmarklegal.org/DesktopDefault.aspx), a conservative, public-interest law firm. This means he's staked not just his voice but also his legal chops by filing U.S. Supreme Court briefs criticizing the [Affordable Care Act](http://www.landmarklegal.org/uploads/14-114tsac.pdf) and supporting the right of Kansas and Arizona to [require proof of citizenship](http://www.landmarklegal.org/uploads/KobachvsUSEAC.pdf) for voter eligibility. Yet Levin's radio show and webcasts are hardly mannerly, may-it-please-the-court affairs. Levin enjoys a good fight or rant, especially if it involves mocking a liberal. He describes "leftist crazies," "phony populists" and "socialists," and says the "media are the Praetorian Guard for the left." Amtrak is "a black hole where money is poured in." The Democratic Party "has destroyed the inner city." Several political professionals interviewed for this list called Levin influential, partly because he is on more than 300 radio stations nationwide (including WHK-1420 in Cleveland at 9 p.m., just after Hewitt's show). He also can be heard through his [website](http://www.marklevinshow.com/). [David Brody of the Christian Broadcasting Network:](http://blogs.cbn.com/thebrodyfile/) Christian Broadcasting's audience may not be as large as [Rush Limbaugh's](http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/) (speaking of influential), but as a campaign manager said, the viewers lean heavily Republican -- and they vote. So David Brody, CBN's chief political correspondent, makes the list because he gets the interviews, both in his reporting capacity for CBN News -- which can be seen on the [700 Club](http://www.cbn.com/700club/), with 1 million viewers daily -- and for his blog, [The Brody File](http://blogs.cbn.com/thebrodyfile/). Candidates seem comfortable discussing faith with Brody, and he easily segues from foreign policy and domestic news to a kind of religious intimacy seldom seen in traditional media. Carly Fiorina [recently discussed](http://www.cbn.com/tv/4237065749001) at some length with Brody how she would not have endured tragedies in her life "without a personal relationship with Jesus Christ." Marco Rubio used a [recent interview ](http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/politics/2015/May/Rubio-Warns-of-Clear-Present-Danger-to-Christianity/)with Brody to reach out to the religious right on gay marriage, warning that gay-rights proponents who denounce their opponents as homophobes will next turn on the "teachings of mainstream Christianity, the catechism of the Catholic Church" and even will argue that these represent hate speech. Rubio took heat from gay-rights supporters -- but Brody wrote on his blog that the Florida U.S. senator was "right on the money." Interviews and analyses by Brody, who authored the book ["The Teavangelicals,"](http://www.amazon.com/The-Teavangelicals-Inside-Evangelicals-America/dp/0310335612/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1341326075&sr=8-1&keywords=teavangelicals) are a regular feature on the 700 Club. He also features his work on [a CBN website](http://www.cbn.com/Authors/cbnnews/David-Brody/). [Erick Erickson and Red State:](http://www.redstate.com/) Erick Erickson has a trifecta -- an afternoon [radio show](http://www.erickontheradio.com/), a leading role at a website (Red State Blog) and an annual [conference ](http://campaigns.townhall.com/rsg-landing-page/)that draws the likes of Marco Rubio, Scott Walker and Jeb Bush. He's a Fox News contributor. Conservative leaders whisper in his ear, although he has chafed at the Republican establishment. Unlike some other commentators, Erickson actively supports candidates, and his list of winners -- Rubio, Rand Paul and Ted Cruz among them -- has bolstered his conservative credentials. The Atlantic [called him](http://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2014/12/is-the-most-powerful-conservative-in-america-losing-his-edge/383503/) "arguably the most powerful conservative in America today." Although RedState.com does not have the largest audience -- about 746,000 unique visitors a month, according the metrics site Quantcast -- Erickson's drive-time show radio show is heard widely, anchored by one of the nation's largest stations, in Atlanta, and is also available [online](http://www.erickontheradio.com/). His pronouncements can light up a congressman's switchboard, but they're not always for sensitive tastes. He once wondered in a blog post whether President Barack Obama was "shagging hookers," but concluded it was unlikely because Michelle Obama was a "Marxist harpy" who would "go Lorena Bobbit on him should he even think about it." Erickson later told media critic Howard Kurtz, then on CNN (now on Fox), that he had learned not to get so personal -- yet earlier this year, he called Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell [a "eunuch"](http://www.redstate.com/2015/02/25/eunuch-mitch-mcconnell-squeals-like-a-pig/) who has acted "as if he needs testosterone injections." [Townhall:](http://townhall.com/) Townhall.com is website that serves as a bulletin board, making it ideal for taking the conservative pulse. Between 2.7 million and 3.2 million people do so a month, according to Quantcast figures. That generally means they get news and aggregations about Obama administration scandals, and Hillary Clinton news. And China news. And more Clinton news. With a home page attractively organized with lots of boxes, there were no fewer than eight boxes -- for eight separate stories -- on the former secretary of state one day recently. Some were staff written; editor Katie Pavlich, author of a book about t [he Left's "War on Women," ](http://www.amazon.com/Assault-Flattery-Truth-About-Their/dp/1476749604/ref=tmm_hrd_title_0?ie=UTF8&qid=1403115686&sr=8-1)and her staff are prolific. But mainstream sources including the Associated Press and CBS News are represented, too. One of Townhall's best features is its wide assortment of voices, with columns by writers including political analyst Michael Barone (of the Washington Examiner and the American Enterprise Institute), Fox News contributor and columnist Michelle Malkin, Erick Erickson (see Red State, above), writer and former MSNBC host S. E. Cupp, Jonah Goldberg of the National Review, Ann Coulter, Pat Buchanan, and on and on. Townhall has links to conservative radio shows. It has links to Hot Air, an affiliated website. Proof of a vast, right-wing conspiracy? Actually, it's more like a business conglomerate: California-based Salem Media Group owns Townhall, Hot Air, Red State, more than 100 radio stations and book publisher Regnery Publishing. [NewsMax](http://www.newsmax.com/): This website's audience is large (6.9 million viewers a month, according to Quantcast), its aesthetic clean, and many of its columnists, called "Insiders," are on speed-dial with the Washington establishment: Charles Krauthammer, Fareed Zakaria, Rich Lowry. In a universe where websites scream and shout, Newsmax offers a sheen of calm. Don't think of it as too buttoned down, though. It has returned time and again to topics such as President Obama's true birthplace -- or as Newsmax prefers to call it, [ "Barack Obama's citizenship scandal."](http://www.newsmax.com/FastFeatures/Barack-Obama-Scandal-Citizenship-Birth-Certificate/2015/01/29/id/621514/) Although Newsmax does original reporting and analysis, it also has a steady stream of news stories from mainstream media including the Associated Press and Bloomberg News. Bloomberg Businessweek reported [last year](http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-03-06/newsmaxs-chris-ruddy-preps-tv-network-to-rival-fox-news) that almost every Republican presidential candidate makes a visit to Newsmax's West Palm Beach, Florida, headquarters, where a 200,000-circulation monthly magazine is produced. The website started in 1998, putting it at the forefront of the conservative movement's web presence. An aside: Newsmax [also promotes vitamin supplements](http://www.newsmax.com/Health/). Others to check out: - The Blaze - The Daily Caller - The Washington Examiner - The Washington Free Beacon - The Federalist

Townhall

https://townhall.com/columnists/

Columns Tipsheet Cartoons Podcasts Videos MY ACCOUNT Account Settings Newsletter Subscriptions Log Out Subscribe LOGIN Login MY ACCOUNT Account Settings Newsletter Subscriptions Comment Settings Log Out LOGIN Subscribe Tipsheet Columns Cartoons Podcasts Videos Contact Us Terms & Conditions Privacy Policy California - Do Not Sell My Personal Information California CCPA Notice Advertisement Columns Today's Top Columns The Debate Debacle Changes Nothing Kurt Schlichter Democrats in Total Panic Mode Derek Hunter Newsweek Struggles With Plurals Brad Slager The Fact-Checker Frauds Are Typified by CNN's Daniel Dale and His Fractured Debate Analysis Brad Slager Are We the Champions? Allen West If You're Calling for Biden's Removal, You're Helping Democrats Scott Morefield Fact-Checking the Two Presidents John C. 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Jerry Newcombe Some Illegal Aliens Are Getting More Gun Rights than Americans Luis Valdes Advertisement Saturday June 29 Mike Johnson: Trump & Biden's Face Off Was 'The Greatest Mismatch in the History of Presidential Debates' Tom Tradup Why We Hate Each Other John C. Goodman Putting North Carolina Education Back on the Right Track Jeff Davidson Helium Leaks and Mission Creep Cost Taxpayers Dearly David Williams The Biden Agenda in His Own Words Scott Hogenson US Missiles Strike Crimea: A Tale of Dysfunction, Danger, and Doom Robert Orlando Advertisement Friday June 28 Biden Is Not Okay Katie Pavlich Can the Dems Throw Biden Out? Kurt Schlichter Stop the Ukrainian Meat Grinder? Victor Davis Hanson Post-Debate Post Mortem: The Press Is Not Handling the Joe Biden Debate Performance Well...At All Brad Slager How Conservatives Can Finally Get Judicial Nominations Right Josh Hammer Did Trump Lose the Presidency With This Debate? 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Plaaslike Besorgde Inwoners

https://www.onlinetenders.co.za/news/hawks-raid-on-george-municipality-businesses-and-private-homes

You deserve more, Find tenders and business leads on the GO The Hawks swooped on a number of George Municipality offices, business premises and private homes during a search-and-seizure operation, following allegations of fraud and corruption in procurement processes and the awarding of tenders by the municipality. "The ongoing search-and-seizure operation is being carried out at various municipal offices as well as business premises and private homes of certain people of interest. "No arrests have been made at this stage as no one has been charged. "We are simply conducting a search and seizure of documents linked to the irregularities on awarding of tenders," said Hawks spokesperson Philani Nkwalase. Electronic equipment and a number of documents were retrieved by the Hawks during their operation yesterday. The operation was prompted by allegations made by individuals about irregular tender procurements and procedures, according to George municipal manager Trevor Botha. Botha said they were co-operating with the investigation. Western Cape Local Government, Environmental Affairs and Development Planning MEC Anton Bredell said the Hawks had started an investigation into alleged irregularities in the municipalities of Bitou (Plettenberg Bay) and George. "My department has a long history of not fearing to step in when there are concerns about the way municipalities are being run. "We have seen similar investigations in Oudtshoorn and Kannaland municipalities conducted by the Hawks in the past. "It is a pity that these types of matters seem to repeat themselves and it is a real pity that public officials seem to forget in whose interests they serve. "Our message has always been that if your hands are caught in the till in this province, then we will not hesitate to chop them off, no matter whose hands they are," said Bredell. Virgil Gericke, the leader of George political party Plaaslike Besorgde Inwoners, said they were elated by news of yesterday's operations. "We are extremely happy that the Hawks have finally clamped down against the municipality's officials and administrators. "For years we have spoken out about the maladministration, corruption and irregularities," said Gericke. Independent Civic Organisation of SA provincial leader Dawid Kamfer said they expected more municipal corruption to come to light following the raid.

African Change Academy

https://www.timeslive.co.za/politics/2017-03-28-holomisa-ejects-udm-founder-member/

Holomisa ejects UDM founder member 28 March 2017 - 16:54 Just R20 for the first month. Support independent journalism by subscribing to our digital news package. UDM founding member and former provincial secretary Wandile Tsipa was unceremoniously kicked out of a leadership meeting in Mthatha by party leader Bantu Holomisa on Monday. Holomisa accused Tsipa of forming another party using UDM resources. UDM provincial spokesman Mabandla Gogo said the UDM had been told that Tsipa had registered a party called African Change Academy' with colours similar to those of the ANC. Gogo said it was disappointing that Tsipa had built another party while he was still in the UDM. "Mr Tsipa cheated on the UDM'" said Gogo. More in [the Daily Dispatch](http://www.dispatchlive.co.za/politics/2017/03/28/holomisa-ejects-founder-udm-member/) - TMG Digital/DispatchLIVE Just R20 for the first month. Support independent journalism by subscribing to our digital news package.

African Change Academy

https://www.dispatchlive.co.za/politics/2019-03-29-watch-african-change-academy-leader-calls-for-referendum-on-death-penalty/

WATCH | African Change Academy leader calls for referendum on death penalty African Change Academy leader Wandile Tsipa says the party wants the death penalty to be reintroduced in South Africa. Tsipa was speaking at his party's provincial manifesto launch in Mthatha (see video below). He said government needed to hold a referendum on the death penalty to allow South Africans to choose if they wanted it back or not. "The only people against the death sentence are those who do criminal activities. "As African Change Academy we are in favour of the return of the death sentence," Tsipa said. African Change Academy leader Wandile Tsipa says they was the death sentence back in South Africa. Video by SIYA TSEWU Would you like to comment on this article? Register (it's quick and free) or sign in now. Please read our [Comment Policy](/pages/comments/) before commenting.

CasaPound

http://www.bpb.de/politik/extremismus/rechtsextremismus/184193/italien-casa-pound-faschismus-fuer-das-3-Jahrtausend

Deutsche Neonazis und Vertreter der so genannten Neuen Rechten blicken mit Neid in Richtung Italien. Immer wieder pilgern Delegationen nach Rom zur Zentrale der rechtsextremen Bewegung Casa Pound und veröffentlichen anschließend ihre begeisterten Berichte, die man auch im Internet nachlesen kann. Casa Pound hat offensichtlich etwas geschaffen, wovon deutsche Rechtsextreme noch träumen: eine Bewegung, die mit ihren Botschaften und Aktionen massenkompatibel geworden ist, die oszillierend zwischen Popkultur und rechter Subkultur und unter dem Schlagwort Nonkonformismus vor allem junge Menschen erreicht. Der Aufstieg ist Casa Pound gelungen, obwohl – oder gerade weil – die Vertreter der Organisation kein Problem damit haben, sich als "Faschisten des 3. Jahrtausends" zu bezeichnen. Damit haben sie in den Augen ihrer Anhänger den Spagat geschafft zwischen dem Erbe einer von Mussolini geprägten Vergangenheit und einem Versprechen für die Zukunft. Casa Pound – der Name ist nicht zufällig gewählt: Ezra Pound (1885-1972), der amerikanische Dichter, war ein glühender Bewunderer des italienischen Faschismus. Von Italien aus veröffentlichte er antisemitische und rassistische Hetze. Vom Faschismus hat er sich auch nach dem 2. Weltkrieg nie distanziert. Casa Pound hat sich seit seiner Gründung 2003 in ganz Italien ausgebreitet. Gegründet wurde die Organisation auch, um den linken Centri Sociali, den Sozialzentren, etwas entgegenzusetzen und das weite Feld der alternativen Subkultur nicht linken Gruppierungen zu überlassen. Weil Casa Pound den Status einer gemeinnützigen Organisation hat, kann sie Spendengelder akquirieren. Inzwischen gibt es rund 50 Standorte, 17 Regionalorganisationen. Casa Pound unterhält Bars und Buchläden und hat nach eigenen Angaben mehr als 4.000 Mitglieder, die Zahl der Unterstützer dürfte noch deutlich höher sein. Diese Ausbreitung ist, von einigen Anschlägen militanter linker Gruppen abgesehen, weitgehend ungebremst vonstatten gegangen. Eine Gegenöffentlichkeit wie bei vielen deutschen NPD-Aufmärschen gibt es bei den Demonstrationen von Casa Pound in Italien nicht. Der italienische Staat und Italiens Politik hatten Casa Pound bislang wenig entgegenzusetzen. Im Unterschied zu Deutschland ist die rechtsextreme Organisation fest in der Studenten- und Schülerschaft verankert und damit potentiell in der Lage intellektuelle Kreise zu erobern. Casa Pound profiliert sich als soziales Gewissen Das Markenzeichen von Casa Pound ist eine futuristisch-stilisierte, schwarz-weiße Schildkröte mit achteckigem Panzer und hohem Wiedererkennungswert. Auf Demonstrationen treten die Anhänger in der Regel blockweise in recht einheitlicher Kleidung auf, oft werden dabei hunderte von Fahnen mit der "Tartaruga" geschwenkt. Martialisch kommen sie daher – wie derartige Auftritte als non-konformistisch verkauft werden können, bleibt ein Geheimnis des Marketings von Casa Pound. Ihre Themen ziehen. Immer wieder versucht sich die Organisation, mit Aktionen für bezahlbaren Wohnraum, bessere Schulen oder saubere Städte als soziales Gewissen zu profilieren. Man kritisiert populistisch unter anderem die Macht der Banken und die EU-Bürokratie. Das ist in weiten Teilen der italienischen Gesellschaft konsensfähig. Medienwirksam beteiligt sich Casa Pound auch an landesweiten Kundgebungen anderer Organisationen und tritt dabei als soziale Bewegung von rechts auf. 2013 beteiligte sie sich zum Beispiel an den Demonstrationen der "Forchoni", der so genannten Mistgabelbewegung, die der Zorn weiter Teile der Bevölkerung auf die Straße brachte – unter anderem gegen Privilegien von Politikern, die Situation am Arbeitsmarkt und staatliche Liberalisierungsprogramme. Deutsche Rechtsextreme fasziniert vor allem, dass bei Casa Pound der "Faschismus des dritten Jahrtausends" zumindest in Ansätzen auch gelebt wird. Besichtigen kann man das im römischen Stadtteil Esquilin, in der Nähe des Termini-Bahnhofs. Dort, in der Via Napoleone III., steht das Hauptquartier. Ende 2003 hatten junge Rechtsextreme ein leerstehendes Haus besetzt, offiziell als Protest gegen hohe Mieten. Das Viertel war ursprünglich von Migranten geprägt, von denen immer noch viele in Bahnhofsnähe leben. Inzwischen aber hat Casa Pound der Gegend seinen Stempel aufgedrückt. Davon zeugen die vielen Plakate und Hakenkreuze an den Hauswänden sowie faschistische Parolen, darunter auch immer wieder Solidaritätserklärungen für den 2013 im Hausarrest gestorbenen NS-Kriegsverbrecher Erich Priebke. Die römische Stadtreinigung kommt mit der Säuberung nicht mehr hinterher. "CASAPOUND" steht in Großbuchstaben, die an Inschriften auf faschistischen Denkmälern erinnern, über dem Eingang des Hauptquartiers. Das Haus ist nicht nur Zentrum der Aktivitäten, es beherbergt auch diverse Unterorganisationen, außerdem wohnen hier einige Familien. Innen wird Mussolinis Faschismus in Bildern und Symbolen verehrt. Das ist in Italien möglich. Während in Deutschland Symbole der Naziherrschaft aus dem öffentlichen Raum entfernt wurden, wird in Italien an einigen Orten bis heute der Mussolini-Kult inszeniert – wie in der Kleinstadt Predappio in der Region Emilia-Romagna, wo der Diktator geboren und begraben wurde. Mehrmals im Jahr pilgern unbelehrbare Bewunderer zur ihm errichteten Gruft – darunter regelmäßig Abordnungen von Casa Pound. Auch Rom ist ein günstiges Umfeld für die selbsternannten "Faschisten des dritten Jahrtausends": Die italienische Hauptstadt war schon seit den 1920er Jahren eine faschistische Hochburg. Ganz gewöhnliche Zeitungskioske in der römischen Innenstadt verkaufen Mussolini-Devotionalien, immer wieder sieht man Schüler, die sich Hakenkreuze auf die Rucksäcke gemalt haben. Bis heute steht vor dem Olympiastadion ein gewaltiger weißer und vor ein paar Jahren erst restaurierter Obelisk mit der Inschrift "Mussolini Dux", "Mussolini Führer". Fußballfans kommen auf dem Weg zur Tribüne an Steinblöcken vorbei, auf denen die vermeintlichen Heldentaten des faschistischen Regimes verewigt sind. Ganz in der Nähe des Stadions ist in einer verlassenen U-Bahnstation ein Kulturzentrum der extremen Rechten entstanden, in dem einschlägige Bands spielen und Kampfsportturniere stattfinden. "Area 19" heißt es, benannt nach dem Gründungsjahr der Faschistischen Kampfbünde (Fasci di Combattimento) im Jahr 1919. Von der Kommunalverwaltung wird das toleriert. Der ehemalige Bürgermeister von Rom, Gianni Alemanno, hat selbst eine neofaschistische Vergangenheit und ist mit einer Tochter Pino Rautis verheiratet ist, einem der bekanntesten neofaschistischen Politiker im Nachkriegsitalien. Unter Alemanno konnte sich auch Casa Pound ungehindert ausbreiten. Alemannos Sohn ist Mitglied im und Kandidat für den Blocco Studentesco, die Jugendorganisation von CasaPound, die in Schüler- und Uniparlamenten gut vertreten ist. Immer wieder gab es auch Berichte, dass die Casa Pound regelrecht gefördert worden sei. Von Rom aus wird die professionelle Öffentlichkeitsarbeit gesteuert Vom Hauptquartier in der römischen Via Napoleone III. aus läuft die Propagandamaschine von Casa Pound: Die Organisation betreibt ein Webradio und ein Internetfernsehen. Von hier aus werden landesweite Aktionen geplant – wie zum Beispiel ein geschichtsrevisionistisches "Projekt", das den Blick auf italienische Opfer lenkt statt auf faschistische italienische Täter. Mit italienischen Opfern sind allerdings nicht die im Widerstand aktiven Partisanen gemeint, die häufig politisch links verortet werden, sondern zum Beispiel die Opfer der Foibe-Massaker an der istrischen und dalmatischen Küste im und nach dem 2. Weltkrieg, als sich jugoslawische Partisanen an der italienischen Bevölkerung rächten. Ein anderes, immer wieder kehrendes Thema, mit dem Stimmung gemacht wird, ist der Kampf für bezahlbaren Wohnraum und gegen den angeblichen Ausverkauf Italiens durch internationale Konzerne. Wie bei einer Franchise-Kette stellt die Zentrale das Propagandamaterial für die regionalen und lokalen Unterorganisationen zur Verfügung. Die Öffentlichkeitsarbeit ist professionell, vor allem im Netz und in den sozialen Medien. Es gibt eine Pressestelle, und einfachen Anhängern wird eingeschärft, dass sie nicht mit der Presse sprechen sollen. Dafür geben Vertreter der Führungsriege immer wieder Interviews, wenn auch in der Regel nicht den kritischen Medien. Das bekannteste Gesicht ist Gianluca Iannone (Jahrgang 1973). Er war 2003 bei der Besetzung von Casa Pound dabei, inzwischen ist er Präsident der Bewegung. Davor hatte er bereits Erfahrungen in verschiedenen neofaschistischen Parteien gesammelt und war als Skinhead in Gewaltakte verwickelt. Außerdem ist Iannone Sänger der Hausband ZetaZeroAlfa. Deren von rechtem Pathos triefende Musik wird über die einschlägigen Rechtsrock-Foren verbreitet, gleich neben Haterock-Bands, die regelmäßig "Sieg Heil"-Rufe in ihre Liedtexte einstreuen. Nach außen hin gibt Iannone mal den Vordenker, mal den Kümmerer, er gibt den Einpeitscher oder den verantwortungsbewussten Familienvater. In letzter Zeit entwickelt sich um ihn ein regelrechter Führerkult. Iannone ist vor allem Sprachrohr: So erklärte er dem Online-Magazin "Alternative Right", einem Forum der internationalen Neuen Rechten, vor einigen Jahren die Methoden von Casa Pound: "CPI (Casa Pound Italia, d.R.) arbeitet an Dutzenden Projekten und mit verschiedenen Methoden: von Konferenzen bis hin zu Demonstrationen, Verbreitung von Informationen, Plakaten. Das Wichtigste ist, Gegeninformation zu schaffen und den Raum zu besetzen." Dazu werden in letzter Zeit auch gezielt Frauen angesprochen: Zum Beispiel mit einer Kampagne, die die Verringerung der Arbeitszeit von Frauen mit kleinen Kindern bei vollem Lohnausgleich fordert. Auch scheut sich Casa Pound nicht, Ikonen der Popkultur wie Che Guevara, für die eigenen Zwecke einzuspannen. Plakate mit seinem Konterfei sollen ein Publikum ansprechen, das vor strammen rechtsradikalen Parolen zurückschrecken würde. Gleichzeitig kaschiert man so nach außen das wirkliche Programm von Casa Pound. Casa Pound ist auf dem Weg in die Politik Das ist nichts anderes als ein Kulturkampf von rechts. Wie der funktioniert, kann man gleich um die Ecke des Hauptquartiers von Casa Pound besichtigen. Hier liegt der Buchladen "Testa di Ferro", ein wichtiges Element in diesem Kampf. "Testa di Ferro", "Der Eisenkopf", hieß die Zeitung der Freischärler, die nach Ende des 1. Weltkrieges die kroatische Hafenstadt Rijeka (ital. Fiume) besetzten. Damals war um den Schriftsteller Gabriele D'Annunzio eine Bewegung entstanden, die als Vorläufer des Faschismus gilt. In der Casa-Pound-Buchhandlung bekommt man Texte der Vordenker der Neuen Rechten bis hin zu dumpfen Glorifizierungsschriften über die SS und natürlich auch Pamphlete, die den Faschismus verherrlichen und Geschichtsrevisionismus betreiben. Entsprechende Kleidung und sonstige neofaschistische Accessoires fehlen nicht im Sortiment, das auch online vertrieben wird. In dem Buchladen liegt auch der Roman aus, mit dem Autor Domenico Di Tullio am Mythos Casa Pound strickt: "Nessun Dolore" soll offenbar auch in Deutschland begeistern. Unter dem Titel "Wer gegen uns" erscheint eine deutsche Version in der "edition nordost" im Antaios-Verlag, inzwischen eine Institution unter den intellektuellen Vertretern der deutschsprachigen Neuen Rechten. Recht schwülstig liest sich der Werbetext zum Buch auf den Webseiten des Verlages: "Es geht darin um die Geschichte junger Männer und Frauen, die vor der Wahl stehen, entweder einen bürgerlichen Weg einzuschlagen oder die Chance ihres Lebens zu ergreifen und Teil einer ebenso kompromißlosen wie faszinierenden Bewegung zu werden – Teil des Projekts Casa Pound Italia." Teil dieses Projektes ist es offenbar inzwischen auch, sich an Wahlen zu beteiligen. Bei der italienischen Parlamentswahl im Februar 2013 war man erstmals mit einer eigenen Liste vertreten. Und auch, wenn Casa Pound landesweit deutlich unter einem Prozent blieb und keinen Sitz im Parlament erobern konnte: Fast 90.000 Stimmen gab es für die Organisation. Da für beide Kammern gewählt wurde, liegt die Zahl der Wähler wohl in etwa bei der Hälfte. Auch bei der Europawahl will man wieder antreten: Mit "Europa si, schiavi no" – "Europa ja, Sklaven nein" - gibt es bereits einen plakativen Wahlslogan. Ziel sind aber vermutlich nicht die parlamentarischen Debatten mit anderen gewählten Volksvertretern, sondern vor allem die Segnungen der italienischen Parteienfinanzierung.

CasaPound

https://sezession.de/18102/casa-pound-2

Soziales Pathos, antikapitalistische Rhetorik, nationale Symbolik – die Besetzer stammten aus der militanten rechtsradikalen Szene Roms, und machten damals wie heute keinen Hehl aus ihren Überzeugungen: die seien »weder links noch rechts«, sondern schlicht »fascista«. (Eine Variante ist das ironische Amalgam »Estremocentroalto« – etwa »Extrem-Mitte-oben«.) Zu den exponierten Köpfen der Casa Pound gehören der Vordenker Gabriele Adinolfi, Mitbegründer der in den siebziger Jahren aktiven, mit dem »schwarzen Terrorismus« eng verknüpften Gruppierung Terza Posizione und der 1973 geborene Macher Gianluca Iannone, ein bärtiger, tätowierter Riese, der das Image eines rauhen Motorradrockers pflegt und als Kopf der Hardcore-Band Zetazeroalfa zusätzlichen Kultstatus innehat. Zum Netzwerk der Casa Pound zählen außerdem die Buchhandlung »Testa di Ferro« (Kopf aus Eisen), »Cutty Sark«, der »meistgehaßte Pub Italiens«, und die »Area 19«, eine stillgelegte Bahnhofshalle in den Bergen hinter dem unter Mussolini erbauten Olympischen Forum. Im Umkreis des »Casapoundismus« hat sich ein politischer Stil entwickelt, der frischen Wind in die äußerste Rechte Italiens gebracht hat. Der Erfolg verdankt sich nicht zuletzt dem geschickten Selbstmarketing. Das einprägsame Logo der »Casa Pound«, eine Schildkröte, ist zu einem Markenzeichen geworden, das inzwischen ebenso berüchtigt ist wie das Keltenkreuz oder das Rutenbündel. Für eine dezidiert faschistische Bewegung ist die Kür eines friedfertigen, defensiven und trägen Wappentieres zunächst überraschend. Die Symbolik besitzt allerdings eine poetische Schlüssigkeit. Die Schildkröte trägt ihr Haus auf dem Rücken, sie kann daraus nicht vertrieben werden, zugleich ist sie mobil und zählebig. Auf den zweiten Blick zeigt sich, daß das Symbol eine verborgene kriegerische Konnotation hat: es spielt auch auf die Marschformation »Testudo« (Landschildkröte) des antiken römischen Heeres an, in der die aneinandergereihten Schilde den Trupp in einen menschlichen Panzer verwandelten. Das präzise Achteck des stilisierten Panzers und die nach innen gerichteten Pfeile verweisen auf ein geistiges Ordnungsprinzip und eine spirituelle Konzentration. Folgerichtig grenzen sich die Verantwortlichen der Casa Pound trotz ihres anarchischen Gestus scharf vom Stil linker besetzter Häuser ab: Ordnung, Sauberkeit und Ästhetik spielen eine ebenso wichtige Rolle wie das strenge Verbot von Waffen, Drogen und Prostitution. Entsprechende »Casas« gibt es inzwischen unter anderem in Mailand, Bologna und Neapel, allesamt Städte, in denen den Schwarzhemden zum Teil gewaltsamer Widerstand entgegengesetzt wird. Die Wut der Linken entspringt dabei wohl auch der Empörung, daß die Rechte nun in ihren ureigenen Gewässern fischt. Dazu gehören aktive Solidarität mit den sozial Unterprivilegierten und Sympathiebekundungen für unterdrückte Völker wie die Tibeter ebenso wie der Kampf gegen die Privatisierung von Bildung und Gesundheitswesen und radikale Forderungen nach einem staatlich garantierten Wohnungsrecht für alle italienischen Familien. Im April 2009, nach dem großen Erdbeben in den Abruzzen, wurde unter dem Slogan »Bauen wir Italien wieder auf« zur freiwilligen Hilfeleistung aufgerufen. Dabei soll die politische Rekrutierung hintangestellt werden: Die zwanzig in der Casa Pound untergebrachten Familien stammen zwar zum Großteil aus dem rechten Umfeld, es herrscht aber nach Auskunft der Organisatoren keinerlei ideologischer Bekenntniszwang. Gezielt werden auch die Frauen angesprochen, etwa mit der Initiative »Zeit, Mutter zu sein«, die sich für die Rechte von alleinerziehenden Müttern einsetzt. Die seit den neunziger Jahren angestiegene Masseneinwanderung nach Italien wird in den affinen Publikationen primär unter einem »globalisierungskritischen« Aspekt gesehen: der Kapitalismus brauche billige Arbeitskräfte und versuche diese Ausbeutungsstrategie mit multikulturalistischer Rhetorik zu kaschieren. Unter den Militanten sollen sich auch gelegentlich farbige Aktivisten einfinden, und zu den internen Legenden gehört die Geschichte von der Pizzeria eines Ägypters, die von Antifas verwüstet wurde, die es auf Gianluca Iannone abgesehen hatten – worauf dieser die Renovierung des Lokals durch ein Benefizkonzert unterstützte. So entstand mitten im »multikulturellen« Stadtteil Esquilino, in einer fast ausschließlich von Chinesen bewohnten Straße, geduldet von der Polizei und der Stadtverwaltung, eine Institution, die sowohl eine praktische als auch eine symbolische Wirkung entfaltet hat. Sie steht ebenso für eine Philosophie der Verortung wie für eine soziale Utopie und fungiert als Zentrum für politische und kulturelle Aktivitäten. Monatlich finden Vorträge zu breit gestreuten Themen statt, für die durch kluges Networking auch regelmäßig Gäste gewonnen werden, die der Szene denkbar fernstehen, wie etwa Nicolai Lilin, Autor des Bestsellers Sibirische Erziehung. Bei einem Themenabend über Che Guevara kam gar ein Vertreter der radikalen Linken, ein anderes Mal Valerio Morucci, ehemaliges Mitglied der Roten Brigaden und einer der Entführer Aldo Moros. Man bemüht sich, dem Slogan »Casa Pound – Wo die Auseinandersetzung frei ist« gerecht zu werden, ohne die prononcierte Selbstpositionierung aufzugeben. So sind die Gänge und die rund um die Uhr besetzten Büroräume ausgeschmückt mit Parolen wie »Fang an zu glauben! Beginne zu kämpfen! « und mit Malereien im martialischen Stil der Mussolini-Zeit. Während die sozialrevolutionäre Programmatik durchaus an den frühesten und den spätesten Faschismus (der »Sozial-Republik« von Salò) anschließen kann, ist die Übernahme linker Praktiken wie die eigenmächtige Errichtung von »centri sociali« (sozialen Zentren) ein relativ junges Phänomen. Bereits im Dezember 1990 besetzten Anhänger der »Fronte della Gioventù« ein Haus im römischen Stadtteil Monteverde, 1998 wurde die »PortAperta« in San Giovanni in Laterano eröffnet. Als im Juli 2002, wiederum in Rom, die »Casa Montag« ausgerufen wurde, kündigte sich ein ungehörter Tonfall an. »Montag«, der Held von Ray Bradburys Fahrenheit 451, ist »Feuerwehrmann« eines Zukunftsstaates, der den Besitz und die Lektüre von Büchern jeglicher Art verboten hat. Die »Feuerwehr« hat die Aufgabe, die Bücher zu vernichten, doch Montag beginnt heimlich die verbotenen Güter zu sammeln und zu lesen, bis er sich zum Rebellen entwickelt. Während gewöhnlich totalitäre Gesellschaftsordnungen mit dem Begriff »Faschismus« belegt werden, drehen die »non-konformen« Militanten den Spieß um: die Rebellion gegen die Gedankenpolizei, die Freiheit des einzelnen stünden nun auf ihrer Seite. Die Chiffre »451« taucht seither immer wieder auf Demonstrationen der Faschisten auf – gelegentlich, das Paradox noch steigernd, auf einem weißen kreisförmigen Feld auf rotem Grund, optisch an die Fahne der NSDAP erinnernd. Der »Casa Montag« folgte die »Casa Pound«, deren Namensgebung einen ähnlich anspruchsvollen Unterbau verrät. Der Eingangsflur des Hauses ist zu einer Art Pop-Ruhmeshalle gestaltet, in der die Namen all derer in bunten Lettern an die Wand gemalt sind, die als Inspiratoren geschätzt werden. Die Runde der zitierten Geister ist von einer verblüffenden Vielfalt. Neben obligaten Ikonen des Eurofaschismus wie D'Annunzio, Evola, Codreanu, Mosley und Degrelle finden sich in einem wilden Mischmasch Namen wie Saint-Exupéry, Jünger, Majakowskij, Kerouac, Bukowski, Stirner, Tolkien, Orwell oder Leonidas. Der »Skrewdriver«-Kopf Ian Stuart ist ebenso vertreten wie Hölderlin, der Indianerhäuptling Geronimo und die Comicfiguren Corto Maltese und Captain Harlock. Mit Ausnahme von Walter Darré finden sich keine Nationalsozialisten. Dagegen genießt ein Ernst Jünger in der Szene einen hohen Status: Im Herbst 2009 waren in Rom quer über den Bezirk Esquilino und angrenzende Stadtteile bis hin zum Kolosseum verteilte Plakate zu sehen, die sich von einem verstorbenen Kameraden mit einem Jünger-Zitat verabschiedeten. Die Heldengalerie setzt sich auf dem Treppengang fort, der ausschließlich bedeutenden Frauen gewidmet ist: bildende Künstlerinnen wie Camille Claudel und Tamara de Lempicka, Dichterinnen wie Ada Negri und Sibilla Aleramo, die von kommunistischen Partisanen ermordete Filmdiva Luisa Ferida, Leni Riefenstahl sowie Sportlerinnen und Pilotinnen. Eine ähnlich eklektizistische Auswahl findet sich auch im Sortiment des »Testa di Ferro«. Dort werden auch T‑Shirts und Anstecker angeboten, deren Motive von Yukio Mishima bis zur Fußballlegende George Best reichen. Als zentrale Referenzen tauchen immer wieder Filme wie »Fight Club«, »300«, »Uhrwerk Orange« oder »Pulp Fiction« auf. Im Hauptquartier selbst gipfelt die Ikonenpflege in einer kommentierten Sammlung seltener Fotos aus dem Leben Ezra Pounds. Der amerikanische Avantgardist gehörte zu jenen bedeutenden Köpfen, die Partei für den Faschismus ergriffen. Pound hatte sich 1924 in Rapallo niedergelassen und hielt während des Zweiten Weltkriegs antisemitisch gefärbte Propagandareden wider die Alliierten, die er als Handlanger des »Leihkapitals « betrachtete. Nach dem Krieg wurde er als Hochverräter angeklagt und einer erniedrigenden Behandlung unterworfen, die in einer jahrelangen Internierung in eine psychiatrische Anstalt gipfelte. Für den überwiegenden Anteil der Szeneanhänger dürfte es allerdings ausreichen zu wissen, daß Pound der »Dichter gegen den Wucher« und Verehrer des Duce war. Die komplizierte Esoterik der »Cantos« ist selbst unter literarisch gebildeten Lesern notorisch, und gleiches gilt für den von der Szene verkulteten Julius Evola. Die entscheidenderen weltanschaulichen Quellen dürften eher die Texte von Zetazeroalfa und anderen »Musica Alternativa«-Bands sein. Das Publikum des mehrtägigen Festes zur Fünfjahres-Feier der Casa Pound in der »Area 19« im Juni 2009 war zu etwa 80 Prozent von jenem proletarischen Skinhead- und Hooligan-Typus dominiert, den man gemeinhin mit der extremen Rechten assoziiert. Provokante Tätowierungen und ultrakurzer Haarschnitt sind da ebenso ein Muß wie eine recht beschränkte Auswahl an T‑Shirt-Motiven. Das scheint für die Szene insgesamt repräsentativ zu sein, wenn auch vor allem über die Studentenorganisation »Blocco Studentesco« ein beträchtlicher Anteil an Mittelständischen hinzukommt. Hier wird freilich an einen weiteren Strang des historischen Faschismus angeknüpft: an die Betonung des Physischen, des Vitalismus, des Männerbundes, des Agonalen, aber eben auch der Gewalt. Als Ventil wird dafür etwa das Ritual des »Cinghiamattanza« (ungefähr: »Gürtelausflippen«) genutzt, in dem sich frei nach DAF »alle gegen alle« mit nacktem Oberkörper in eine wüste Massenprügelei mit dem Gürtelriemen (die Schnalle ist verboten) stürzen. Auch die beliebte, zum Teil mit Rockerromantik (»liberi, belli, ribelli« – »frei, schön, rebellisch«) legierte Squadristenikonographie mit ihren Totenköpfen, schwarzen Fahnen, Dolchen und Rosen untermauert das zwiespältige »Bad Guys«-Image, das vor allem für junge Männer und Frauen ebenso anziehend ist, wie es auf dem Weg zu einem Anschluß an den Mainstream hinderlich ist – denn für die Linke ist es damit natürlich ein leichtes, die Szene pauschal als Ansammlung von Schlägern hinzustellen. Trotz des im Vergleich zu Deutschland beachtlichen Spielraums, den die Rechten und sogar die immerhin offiziell verbotenen Faschisten in Italien beanspruchen können, hat auch dort die »Political Correctness« die Oberhand. Der Fotoband OltreNero der antifaschistischen Journalisten Allessandro Cosmelli und Marco Mathieu, der zunächst in enger Kollaboration mit Gianluca Iannone entstand, ließ die Szene in stylischen Schwarzweißfotos ebenso verführerisch wie abgründig-abstoßend schillern und betonte deren Subkultur-Charakter sowie die Aura der Gewalt. Iannone empfand diese Darstellung als verfälschend und einseitig und überwarf sich in der Folge mit den Autoren. Die Frage nach der eigentlichen Ideologie der »Faschisten des dritten Jahrtausends« ist nicht leicht zu beantworten. Trotz aller Beteuerungen, keine Nostalgie-Nummer bemühen zu wollen, bleibt der emotionale Kern der Bewegung eben doch auf die heroischen Erzählungen von vorgestern fixiert: D'Annunzios Fiume, der Marsch auf Rom, der Futurismus, der Mythos der Squadristen, die »Republik von Salò« und die »schwarzen Herzen« der »bleiernen« siebziger Jahre, als es in Italien zum blutigen, von Geheimdiensten unterwanderten Terrorkrieg zwischen links- und rechtsextremen Gruppen kam. Unklar ist, was für ein konkretes Gesicht der angepeilte »moderne« Faschismus haben soll, zumal der Dialog mit anderen Milieus aktiv gesucht wird und Querfronten nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Was bleibt, ist vor allem die Rhetorik der Tat und der Vorrang des Aktivismus vor ideologischer Geschlossenheit sowie die Pflege und Schaffung von Ikonen und eines »nonkonformen « Lebensgefühls. Programmatisch ist dafür der Leitartikel der hauseigenen Zeitschrift Occidentale vom August 2009. Einer der gelungensten Casa-Pound-Coups des Jahres war die flächendeckende öffentliche Plakatierung eines Posters, das im Pop-Art-Stil den 1980 verstorbenen linken Liedermacher Rino Gaetano zeigte, wortlos kommentiert allein durch das berüchtigte Schildkrötenlogo. In dem Leitartikel erklärte der Autor, »warum es rechtens ist, daß Casa Pound Rino Gaetano feiert.« Man müsse beileibe kein Linker sein, um den freiheitlichen und vitalen Geist der Lieder Gaetanos zu bewundern. In ihnen finde sich alles, wofür auch die »Casa Pound« stehe: »Die Liebe zu allem, das die Welt mit Ironie betrachtet, zur Poesie, Provokation, Freiheit, zur Gerechtigkeit.« Dabei dürfe man nicht an rückwärtsgewandten Vorstellungen hängenbleiben, hätten doch auch »D'Annunzio, Marinetti, Jünger, Evola, sogar Mussolini« auf der Höhe ihrer Zeit gelebt und gedacht: »Keine Weltflucht, keine Weltuntergangshysterien. Wille, Taten, Freude, Freiheit. Das allein zählt.«

CasaPound

https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2019/06/27/news/casapound_torna_movimento_iannone-229739363/

Cannibalizzato dalla destra sovranista di Matteo Salvini, Casapound smette di essere un partito candidato alle elezioni e torna ad essere un movimento. Ad annunciarlo è il presidente della formazione di ultradestra Gianluca Iannone: "In seguito all'esperienza delle ultime elezioni europee e al termine di una lunga riflessione sul percorso del movimento dalla sua fondazione a oggi, Casapound Italia ha deciso di mettere fine alla propria esperienza elettorale e partitica". Poi aggiunge: "La decisione di oggi non segna affatto un passo indietro, da parte del movimento, ma anzi è un momento di rilancio dell'attività culturale, sociale, artistica, sportiva di Cpi, nel solco di quella che è stata da sempre la nostra identità specifica e originale. Sarà anche un'occasione per tornare a investire tempo ed energie nella formazione militante, particolarmente essenziale, dati i nuovi pruriti liberticidi della sinistra". La battaglia sovranista continua, assicura Iannone: "Tale decisione non significa che Casapound intenda disertare la battaglia sovranista e identitaria. Al contrario, Cpi intende sfruttare il suo bagaglio di vivacità culturale, radicamento sul territorio ed energia militante per contribuire a quella che resta la sfida cruciale da qui ai prossimi anni, dialogando con tutte le forze che si oppongono alle follie globaliste e hanno a cuore i destini della nazione. I molti eletti a livello locale e le 140 sedi sparse su tutto il territorio nazionale resteranno inoltre preziosi avamposti politici per portare avanti le nostre battaglie". "Che sia partito o movimento - è la replica di Emilio Ricci, vicepresidente e legale dell'Associazione nazionale partigiani italiani - mi pare una cosa irrilevante. Dal punto di vista tecnico giuridico non cambia molto. Noi abbiamo fatto un esposto per denunciare il comportamento di Casapound sostenendo che in Italia c'è una azione volta alla ricostituzione del partito fascista". Poi aggiunge: "La decisione di oggi non segna affatto un passo indietro, da parte del movimento, ma anzi è un momento di rilancio dell'attività culturale, sociale, artistica, sportiva di Cpi, nel solco di quella che è stata da sempre la nostra identità specifica e originale. Sarà anche un'occasione per tornare a investire tempo ed energie nella formazione militante, particolarmente essenziale, dati i nuovi pruriti liberticidi della sinistra". La battaglia sovranista continua, assicura Iannone: "Tale decisione non significa che Casapound intenda disertare la battaglia sovranista e identitaria. Al contrario, Cpi intende sfruttare il suo bagaglio di vivacità culturale, radicamento sul territorio ed energia militante per contribuire a quella che resta la sfida cruciale da qui ai prossimi anni, dialogando con tutte le forze che si oppongono alle follie globaliste e hanno a cuore i destini della nazione. I molti eletti a livello locale e le 140 sedi sparse su tutto il territorio nazionale resteranno inoltre preziosi avamposti politici per portare avanti le nostre battaglie". "Che sia partito o movimento - è la replica di Emilio Ricci, vicepresidente e legale dell'Associazione nazionale partigiani italiani - mi pare una cosa irrilevante. Dal punto di vista tecnico giuridico non cambia molto. Noi abbiamo fatto un esposto per denunciare il comportamento di Casapound sostenendo che in Italia c'è una azione volta alla ricostituzione del partito fascista".

Emerson Strykkwartet

https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/reviews/emerson-string-quartet-a8040936.html

Emerson String Quartet, St John's, Smith Square, London, review: Thrilling performance of ineffable Beethoven fugue The celebrated Emerson Quartet have been playing this music for forty years, but familiarity has only served to deepen their understanding [Michael Church](/author/michael-church) [Comments] "Incomprehensible" was one leading critic's verdict when Beethoven's Grosse Fuge was premiered in 1826. "This work will be contemporary for ever – I love it beyond everything," declared Igor Stravinsky a century later. "One of the greatest artistic testimonies to the human capacity for creating meaning in the face of the threat of chaos," says a leading violinist today. "More than anything else in music, this work justifies the ways of God to man", says a musicologist. To some musicians this work speaks of triumph, to others of failure. Beethoven was almost completely deaf in 1825, when he composed the piece, but an aristocratic admirer wanted this work at any price. "I will be glad to pay you what you think proper," he said in his humble letter of commission. In its treatment of tonality this work explicitly adumbrated the 'tone-row' music with which Schoenberg launched his stylistic revolution a hundred years later. And it's still making waves. It crops up in novels and films, and last month Sadler's Wells staged three dance works – each by a different choreographer – which were set to it. Yet it's ineffably mysterious. It feels like a journey through a landscape of rocky crags, cavernous abysses, and unexpected oases of pastoral calm. It's the heart of the message Beethoven wanted to leave to the world: something for us to puzzle over, draw sustenance from, but never fully understand. And it goes without saying that it's ferociously difficult to play, with its huge leaps, stark dissonances, and its angular themes turned upside down, back to front, and sometimes running simultaneously at three different speeds. The celebrated Emerson Quartet have been playing this music for forty years, but familiarity has only served to deepen their understanding: their performance of it as the conclusion of a two-night survey of all Beethoven's late quartet masterpieces was thrilling. No ensemble could ever present a 'perfect' account of this work: there are countless moments where a particular effect – sometimes beautiful, sometimes jagged, and even grotesque – demands close attention without interrupting the flow of thought, and every listener will have their own small grouses. But the Emersons got as close as we are likely to hear for a long time to come.

Emerson Strykkwartet

http://harttweb.hartford.edu/about/history/default.aspx

Welcome to The Hartt School, a performing arts conservatory for [music](https://www.hartford.edu/academics/schools-colleges/hartt/academics/music/default.aspx), [dance](https://www.hartford.edu/academics/schools-colleges/hartt/academics/dance/default.aspx), and [theatre](https://www.hartford.edu/academics/schools-colleges/hartt/academics/theatre/default.aspx). At Hartt, we think the best way to learn and perfect your craft is by doing. That's why we put on more than 400 performances, recitals, lectures, and master classes each year. Because our faculty are performers, scholars, and creative artists themselves—at theatres and concert halls around the world—they teach from experience, just as you will learn from your experiences at Hartt. Through diverse coursework and close mentoring relationships with faculty, you can make your passion your profession. You can learn more about your journey with The Hartt School or explore our pre-college opportunities with the Hartt Community Division in the links below. Learn more about becoming a part of the Hartt community. Secure your spot by depositing today! One of Connecticut's premier live music attractions, the Garmany Chamber Music Series is dedicated to bringing the widest possible range of chamber music performances to the UHart campus. Learn more about our 2023-24 season and purchase tickets here! Spend the summer exploring music teaching and learning at The Hartt School. Our core classes and workshops are the ideal opportunity to immerse yourself in the study of music education. Learn more! Music Theatre At a young age, Leslie Walker '19 knew she wanted a career in the performing arts, as she dreamed of someday performing on Broadway. In the last year, Walker accomplished this goal, as she made her Broadway debut in the revival of Funny Girl as an original cast member, appeared with her cast on Good Morning America, the Macy's Thanksgiving Parade, and attended the 2023 Tony Awards. Her "bucket list" goal was also completed; Walker was featured on the show's cast album. Music Production and Technology Bobbi Giel has been passionate about music since she was young, but it was during Giel's time at The Hartt School that her passion for music production took off. Giel also cites the University of Hartford structure as crucial to her well-rounded education, as she took courses outside of her focus in music, including ones at the Barney School of Business (she received a minor in Business Administration) and at CETA. These connections forged at UHart were also important to Giel's career trajectory. In 2022, she became the head mastering engineer at Welcome to 1979, a multifaceted, analog-centric studio that provides both digital and vinyl mastering services. A Hartt School dance alumna, Ane Arrieta '20, recently debuted with the Martha Graham Dance Company at the exclusive Jacob's Pillow dance festival in Becket, Massachusetts. Arrieta performed a solo in Graham's iconic work, Cave of the Heart. "Years and years of hard work and dedication prepared me for this dream-come-true moment," says Arrieta, who graduated in 2020. "My four years at The Hartt School were pivotal in getting me to this point. The love and mentorship I received from my teachers and from all the tools and training from the program helped launch me directly into my professional career." Conducting Bovell's musical achievements have extended beyond her education at Hartt. She has made notable appearances as a guest conductor with renowned orchestras, including the Cincinatti Symphony, the Oakland Symphony, and the Chicago Sinfonietta. Bovell has also conducted performances at prestigious venues such as the Kennedy Center and the Royal Albert Hall in London for the BBC Prom, and was the first black woman to conduct an opera in Canada. In addition to the 2024 Sphinx Medal of Excellence, she has been the recipient of prestigious awards such the Taki Concordia Conducting Fellowship. These honors highlight her exceptional talent and the impact she has made on the classical music landscape. At The Hartt School Community Division, we bring the arts to your community. We provide expert instruction in music and dance to the Greater Hartford area and serve over 2,800 students of all ages and backgrounds. Engaging with area students — regardless of age, background or skill level — reaffirms our belief in the transformative power of the arts. There's always something happening at Hartt. Keep track of it all on social media. [Learn more about Student Life at Hartt](student-life/default.aspx).

Missy Gold

http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/978347%7C0/Missy-Gold/

Missy Gold Biography Biography Child actress Missy Gold grew up with fellow actor siblings--sister Tracey played middle child Carol Anne on the hit 1980s sitcom "Growing Pains," and sister Brandy had a recurring role on the ensemble hospital drama "St. Elsewhere." In 1976, Gold started acting in small television roles on the historical mini-series "Captain and the Kings" and the Patrick McGoohan medical drama "Rafferty," then moved on to episodes of the escapist series "Fantasy Island" and the 1979 mini-series "How the West Was Won." Gold's big break came when she was nine years old and was cast on the ABC sitcom "Benson," a spin-off of the spoof comedy "Soap." Gold played the governor's daughter, Katie Gatling. The series lasted seven seasons, and Gold officially quit acting when it ended in 1986. She went to Georgetown University and eventually earned a Ph.D. from the California School of Professional Psychology, and became a practicing psychologist. Filmography Cast (Feature Film) [ Twirl (1981) ](/tcmdb/title/19105/twirl) [ Little Mo (1978) ](/tcmdb/title/466022/little-mo) [ Ishi: The Last of His Tribe (1978) ](/tcmdb/title/469920/ishi-the-last-of-his-tribe) Cast (Special) [ Blind Tom: The Story of Thomas Bethune (1987) ](/tcmdb/title/455606/blind-tom-the-story-of-thomas-bethune) [ Circus of the Stars (1983) ](/tcmdb/title/461820/circus-of-the-stars) [ Circus of the Stars (1982) ](/tcmdb/title/461819/circus-of-the-stars) Cast (TV Mini-Series) [ The Blinkins (1986) Voice ](/tcmdb/title/455611/the-blinkins) [ Captains and the Kings (1976) ](/tcmdb/title/72651/captains-and-the-kings) [ Captains and the Kings Part 5 & 6 (1976) ](/tcmdb/title/415065/captains-and-the-kings-part-5-and-6)

Shauna Grant

https://people.com/archive/a-porn-stars-suicide-at-20-leaves-a-legacy-of-shattered-innocence-and-a-shattered-family-vol-29-no-10/

Celebrity Celebrity Deaths Celebrity Death News A Porn Star's Suicide at 20 Leaves a Legacy of Shattered Innocence—and a Shattered Family By Jack Kelley Published on March 14, 1988 12:00PM EST Four years later, it remains an enigma. The short life and ugly death of Colleen Applegate—the subject of Shattered Innocence, a CBS TV movie that airs this Wednesday (March 9)—still baffle those who knew her. They remember Colleen as a headstrong dreamer who was bored with life in Farmington, Minn., a tiny town (pop. 4,370) located 25 miles south of Minneapolis. But boredom can't quite explain how a wholesome kid from a solid, respected Midwestern family could end up a porn-movie queen, coke addict and suicide at age 20. Even her parents, Karen and Phillip Applegate, don't know what really happened. They still find it difficult to reconcile the image of what Colleen was—a blond beguiler with Shirley Temple curls, freckled nose and a smile that clutched the heart—with what she became. Groping for explanations, they wonder if their emotional reticence and rigidity might have left them unequipped to deal with the eldest of their five children. "If I had to do it over, I'd try to understand what was going on," says Karen, 45, who divorced Phil a year ago. "I'd try to reason with her instead of criticizing her constantly, instead of making her go by my way." "I wasn't an easy father," admits Phil, 45, an assistant manager of customer services with Cen'tel Telephone. "But I was the same with all the kids. I don't know if there is an answer." If the Applegates don't know why things started to go wrong for Colleen, they do know when. During her senior year at Farmington High, she rapidly changed from a clean-cut kid into a moody, restive adolescent. She dropped her old friends and started dating a local boy, Mike Marcell, 19. Colleen began drinking, smoking marijuana and staying out late—all tokens of normal adolescent rebellion, the Applegates thought. But one summer night in 1981, just after she'd graduated, Colleen gave notice that something deeper was disturbing her. Following an argument with her mother, she gulped down a vial of prescription sinus pills. The dosage wasn't enough to kill her, but as an attempted suicide, Colleen started mandatory visits to a counseling center. The therapy might have helped her, especially the one required session with her parents, marking the first time Karen and Phil had ever sat down with Colleen to discuss her problems. But characteristically, remembers Karen, "nobody said much." Talking about emotional difficulties simply wasn't their way. Colleen's boredom seemed to fester over the next half year. She took a job with the phone company, quit it months later and by March 1982 had decided to move to California. She was going to stay with the family's relatives, she announced, and, over her parents' objections, she was going with Mike Marcell. A few weeks after leaving, Colleen called with an odd piece of good news: She was working as a model and earning $100 a day, more than her father was making. She didn't mention that she'd answered a newspaper ad for the World Modeling Agency in Van Nuys and had begun posing nude for magazine photographers. Even so, the Applegates soon discovered the truth. After hearing from relatives that Colleen was baring all for skin mags, Phil and Karen flew to California and checked out World Modeling for themselves. Phil remembers feeling intense anger, mixed with helplessness, when he was shown his daughter's portfolio. "I was mad that they'd conned her, they'd used her," he says. "I think 18-year-old kids with stars in their eyes, if you flash enough money at them, there isn't too much they're not gonna do, or justify in their own mind that it's really not that wrong." That's exactly what Colleen believed. The Applegates confronted her that night in her grandparents' Anaheim home, where Colleen (who'd split from Marcell) was then staying. They insisted she quit. She refused, stomped out of the house and dropped out of contact for two months. By this time she was well on her way to becoming the hottest new commodity on the foldout-flesh circuit. What set Colleen apart from run-of-the-skin-mill models was precisely what made her such an unlikely candidate for sleaze: her aura of cornfield innocence. Photographers who free-lanced for Penthouse and Hustler loved her virginal look—to the tune of $2,000 a session. Dazzled by the money and her idea of glamour, Colleen soon took the plunge into porn films. She made several hard-core shorts that caught the eye of a top porn producer, Bobby Hollander. He christened her Shauna Grant and in the fall of 1982 began managing her career. If her films (like Suzie Superstar and Flesh and Laces) betrayed a lack of emotion during on-camera sex, the pay and the perks—limos, first-class hotels and cocaine, especially cocaine—more than compensated. Over the next year Colleen made 30 X-rated movies, had film sex with 37 men, contracted herpes, had an abortion and earned more than $100,000—much of it spent on coke. During this period Colleen was calling her family regularly. Grateful for the contact after two months of silence, Karen and Phil usually avoided the touchy subject of Colleen's work. They had no idea about the movies. It was bad enough that they suffered ridicule when Colleen's first Penthouse photos were published that fall. Colleen phoned the following summer with unexpected news—she'd quit nude modeling. As she told it, she'd moved to Palm Springs with her new boyfriend, a slightly older man named Jake Ehrlich, and was running a leather-goods store she'd bought with her own earnings. As usual, the truth was heavily airbrushed. Ehrlich wasn't slightly older; he was 44. He was also a cocaine dealer whom she'd met through Bobby Hollander. And Colleen hadn't bought the shop with her money, because she didn't have any; Ehrlich had opened it for her. She'd sounded happy on the phone, but in fact was profoundly addicted to coke; the ravages could plainly be seen in her face. Farmington's notorious citizen came home for a visit in the fall of 1983. The signs of cocaine addiction—her unkempt appearance, the blood on her hankie—were evident even to the Applegates, but Colleen denied using drugs. "I believed her," says Phil, "because she was my daughter. And because I wanted to believe her, I suppose." Her final disintegration began on Feb. 21, 1984, when Ehrlich was arrested for violating probation on a previous drug charge. Left to her own devices, Colleen became depressed and disoriented, squandering Ehrlich's money on drugs. On March 14 she went to L.A.'s Ambassador Hotel for the Erotic Film Awards, the porn industry's version of the Oscars. It was her last taste of glamour—Francis Ford Coppola was among the guests at her table. During the night, she received a porn-movie offer and, with her cash dwindling, she accepted. Shooting was to start March 22. She never made it. "Toward the end, her world fell apart," says Ehrlich. "Her security went down the drain. She just went crazy." On March 21, according to the police, Colleen got out the semiautomatic .22 caliber rifle that Ehrlich kept under the bed. By midnight Karen Applegate had been notified that her daughter had shot herself. Frantic, Karen phoned the hospital to ask about Colleen's condition. "Her condition," said a churlish nurse, "is that a bullet went in one side of her head and came out the other side. What do you want me to tell you?" Two years to the month after she left Farmington, Colleen Applegate came home to be buried. Her parents still haven't come to grips with her death. They refuse to believe she killed herself, although police investigations have never produced any evidence of murder. And they can't account for her life. "I didn't look into finding help for myself about how to help her," says Karen. "Maybe it was pride, maybe I didn't want to admit she was in as deep as she was. But she knew we were here, and she knew we loved her." The Applegates insist their divorce was not caused by Colleen's death. "It didn't help," says Karen. "It probably made it happen a little sooner, but it was coming anyway." Phil and Karen also agree on another point: Both deplore the way Shattered Innocence portrays pornographers. "It makes them look as if they're just running a business," says Phil, "and she got in trouble on her own." "Colleen used them to get what she wanted," admits Karen, "but they used her. They're still using her." Phil now regrets selling the rights to Colleen's story, but at least the family has one consolation. They used part of the money to buy Colleen's headstone. Karen keeps other mementos of Colleen—her first-communion photo, her class portraits—in an upstairs closet. Mixed among them are letters from women who say they knew Colleen in L.A. and quit the porn business when she died. One, handwritten on lined paper, reads: "She saved my life. I wish I could have been there to save hers."

Weerfront

http://www.geographic.org/climate/o.html

[ ] -O- [Occluded Mesocyclone] - A [mesocyclone](m.html#Mesocyclone) in which air from the [rear-flank downdraft](r.html#Rear Flank Downdraft) has completely enveloped the circulation at low levels, cutting off the inflow of warm unstable low-level air. [Orographic] - Related to, or caused by, physical geography (such as mountains or sloping terrain). [Orographic Lift] - Lifting of air caused by its passage up and over mountains or other sloping terrain. [Orphan Anvil] - [Slang], an [anvil](a.html#Anvil) from a dissipated thunderstorm, below which no other clouds remain. [Outflow Boundary] - A [storm-scale](s.html#Storm-scale) or [mesoscale](m.html#Mesoscale) boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled air (outflow) from the surrounding air; similar in effect to a cold front, with passage marked by a wind shift and usually a drop in temperature. Outflow boundaries may persist for 24 hours or more after the thunderstorms that generated them dissipate, and may travel hundreds of miles from their area of origin. New thunderstorms often develop along outflow boundaries, especially near the point of intersection with another boundary (cold [front](f.html#Front), [dry line](d.html#Dry Line), another outflow boundary, etc.; see [triple point](t.html#Triple Point)). [Overhang] - Radar term indicating a region of high [reflectivity](r.html#Reflectivity) at middle and upper levels above an area of weak reflectivity at low levels. (The latter area is known as a weak-echo region, or [WER](w.html#WER).) The overhang is found on the inflow side of a thunderstorm (normally the south or southeast side). See [Fig. 2, BWER](f2.gif). [Overrunning] - A weather pattern in which a relatively warm air mass is in motion above another air mass of greater density at the surface. Embedded thunderstorms sometimes develop in such a pattern; [severe thunderstorms](s.html#Severe Thunderstorm) (mainly with large hail) can occur, but [tornadoes](t.html#Tornado) are unlikely. Overrunning often is applied to the case of warm air riding up over a retreating layer of colder air, as along the sloping surface of a warm [front](f.html#Front). Such use of the term technically is incorrect, but in general it refers to a pattern characterized by widespread clouds and steady precipitation on the cool side of a front or other boundary. [*Overshooting Top] (or Penetrating Top) - A dome-like protrusion above a thunderstorm anvil, representing a very strong [updraft](u.html#Updraft) and hence a higher potential for severe weather with that storm. A persistent and/or large overshooting top ( [anvil dome](a.html#Anvil Dome)) often is present on a [supercell](s.html#Supercell). A short-lived overshooting top, or one that forms and dissipates in cycles, may indicate the presence of a [pulse storm](p.html#Pulse Storm) or a [cyclic storm](c.html#Cyclic Storm). See [Figs. 3 (HP storm)](f3.gif), [5 (LP storm)](f5.gif), and [7 (supercell)](f7.gif).

Robert Frost

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9035504/Robert-Frost

[Quotes](/quotes/Robert-Frost) [References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Frost/additional-info) [Quick Facts & Related Topics](/facts/Robert-Frost) Robert Frost Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - In full: - Robert Lee Frost - Born: - March 26, 1874, [San Francisco](/place/San-Francisco-California), [California](/place/California-state), U.S. - Died: - January 29, 1963, [Boston](/place/Boston), [Massachusetts](/place/Massachusetts)(aged 88) - Title / Office: [poet laureate (1958-1959)](/art/poet-laureate) - Awards And Honors: [Pulitzer Prize](/topic/Pulitzer-Prize) [Bollingen Prize (1962)](/art/Bollingen-Prize) When was Robert Frost born, and when did he die? Who were Robert Frost's children, and when did they live? What was Robert Frost known for? What were Robert Frost's most famous poems? Robert Frost (born March 26, 1874, San Francisco, [California](https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state), U.S.—died January 29, 1963, Boston, Massachusetts) was an American poet who was much admired for his depictions of the rural life of [New England](https://www.britannica.com/place/New-England), his command of American [colloquial](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colloquial) speech, and his realistic verse portraying ordinary people in everyday situations. Life Frost's father, William Prescott Frost, Jr., was a journalist with ambitions of establishing a career in California, and in 1873 he and his wife moved to [San Francisco](https://www.britannica.com/place/San-Francisco-California). Her husband's untimely death from [tuberculosis](https://www.britannica.com/science/tuberculosis) in 1885 prompted Isabelle Moodie Frost to take her two children, Robert and Jeanie, to [Lawrence](https://www.britannica.com/place/Lawrence-Massachusetts), [Massachusetts](https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts), where they were taken in by the children's paternal grandparents. While their mother taught at a variety of schools in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, Robert and Jeanie grew up in Lawrence, and Robert graduated from [high school](https://www.britannica.com/topic/high-school) in 1892. A top student in his class, he shared [valedictorian](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/valedictorian) honours with Elinor White, with whom he had already fallen in love. Robert and Elinor shared a deep interest in [poetry](https://www.britannica.com/art/poetry), but their continued education sent Robert to [Dartmouth College](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dartmouth-College) and Elinor to St. Lawrence University. Meanwhile, Robert continued to labour on the poetic career he had begun in a small way during high school; he first achieved professional publication in 1894 when The Independent, a weekly literary journal, printed his poem "My Butterfly: An Elegy." Impatient with academic routine, Frost left Dartmouth after less than a year. He and Elinor married in 1895 but found life difficult, and the young poet supported them by teaching school and farming, neither with notable success. During the next dozen years, six children were born, two of whom died early, leaving a family of one son and three daughters. Frost resumed his college education at [Harvard University](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harvard-University) in 1897 but left after two years' study there. From 1900 to 1909 the family raised poultry on a farm near [Derry](https://www.britannica.com/place/Derry), New Hampshire, and for a time Frost also taught at the Pinkerton Academy in Derry. Frost became an enthusiastic botanist and [acquired](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/acquired) his poetic persona of a New England rural sage during the years he and his family spent at Derry. All this while he was writing poems, but publishing outlets showed little interest in them. By 1911 Frost was fighting against discouragement. Poetry had always been considered a young person's game, but Frost, who was nearly 40 years old, had not published a single book of poems and had seen just a handful appear in magazines. In 1911 ownership of the Derry farm passed to Frost. A momentous decision was made: to sell the farm and use the proceeds to make a radical new start in London, where publishers were perceived to be more receptive to new talent. Accordingly, in August 1912 the Frost family sailed across the Atlantic to [England](https://www.britannica.com/place/England). Frost carried with him sheaves of verses he had written but not gotten into print. English publishers in London did indeed prove more receptive to innovative verse, and, through his own [vigorous](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/vigorous) efforts and those of the expatriate American poet [Ezra Pound](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezra-Pound), Frost within a year had published A Boy's Will (1913). From this first book, such poems as "Storm Fear," "The Tuft of Flowers," and ["Mowing"](https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/53001/mowing) became standard anthology pieces. [ Britannica Quiz Famous Poets and Poetic Form ](/quiz/famous-poets-and-poetic-form) A Boy's Will was followed in 1914 by a second collection, [North of Boston](https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-of-Boston), that introduced some of the most popular poems in all of Frost's work, among them ["Mending Wall,"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mending-Wall) ["The Death of the Hired Man,"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Death-of-the-Hired-Man) "Home Burial," and "After Apple-Picking." In London, Frost's name was frequently mentioned by those who followed the course of modern [literature](https://www.britannica.com/art/literature), and soon American visitors were returning home with news of this unknown poet who was causing a sensation abroad. The Boston poet [Amy Lowell](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amy-Lowell) traveled to England in 1914, and in the bookstores there she [encountered](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/encountered) Frost's work. Taking his books home to America, Lowell then began a campaign to locate an American publisher for them, meanwhile writing her own laudatory review of North of Boston. Without his being fully aware of it, Frost was on his way to fame. The outbreak of [World War I](https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I) brought the Frosts back to the [United States](https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States) in 1915. By then [Amy Lowell's review](https://books.google.com/books?id=31gTAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81) had already appeared in The New Republic, and writers and publishers throughout the Northeast were aware that a writer of unusual abilities stood in their midst. The American publishing house of Henry Holt had brought out its edition of North of Boston in 1914. It became a best-seller, and, by the time the Frost family landed in [Boston](https://www.britannica.com/place/Boston), Holt was adding the American edition of A Boy's Will. Frost soon found himself besieged by magazines seeking to publish his poems. Never before had an American poet achieved such rapid fame after such a disheartening delay. From this moment his career rose on an ascending curve. Frost bought a small farm at Franconia, New Hampshire, in 1915, but his income from both poetry and farming proved inadequate to support his family, and so he lectured and taught part-time at [Amherst College](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amherst-College) and at the [University of Michigan](https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Michigan) from 1916 to 1938. Any remaining doubt about his poetic abilities was dispelled by the collection [Mountain Interval](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mountain-Interval) (1916), which continued the high level established by his first books. His reputation was further [enhanced](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enhanced) by [New Hampshire](https://www.britannica.com/topic/New-Hampshire-poetry-collection-by-Frost) (1923), which received the [Pulitzer Prize](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pulitzer-Prize) for poetry. That prize was also awarded to Frost's Collected Poems (1930) and to the collections A Further Range (1936) and A Witness Tree (1942). His other poetry volumes include West-Running Brook (1928), Steeple Bush (1947), and In the Clearing (1962). Frost served as a poet-in-residence at Harvard (1939–43), Dartmouth (1943–49), and Amherst College (1949–63), and in his [old age](https://www.britannica.com/science/old-age) he gathered honours and awards from every quarter. He was the poetry consultant to the [Library of Congress](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Library-of-Congress) (1958–59; the post was later styled [poet laureate](https://www.britannica.com/art/poet-laureate) consultant in poetry), and his recital of his poem "The Gift Outright" at the inauguration of President [John F. Kennedy](https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-F-Kennedy) in 1961 was [a memorable occasion](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1961/01/21/97650370.html?pageNumber=9) .

Malgasse

https://www.britannica.com/animal/booby

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/animal/booby/additional-info) [Quick Facts & Related Topics](/facts/booby) booby Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Related Topics: [gannet](/animal/gannet) [Cape gannet](/animal/Cape-gannet) [red-footed booby](/animal/red-footed-booby) [blue-footed booby](/animal/blue-footed-booby) [masked booby](/animal/masked-booby) booby, any of six or seven [species](https://www.britannica.com/science/species-taxon) of large tropical seabirds [constituting](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituting) the family Sulidae (order [Pelecaniformes](https://www.britannica.com/animal/pelecaniform) or Suliformes). They vary in length from about 65 to 85 cm (25–35 inches). The [red-footed booby](https://www.britannica.com/animal/red-footed-booby) (Sula sula) and the [masked](https://www.britannica.com/animal/masked-booby), or blue-faced, booby (S. dactylatra) are wide-ranging in the [Atlantic](https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean), [Pacific](https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean), and [Indian](https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-Ocean) oceans. The [blue-footed booby](https://www.britannica.com/animal/blue-footed-booby) (S. nebouxii) occurs in the Pacific from southern [California](https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state) to northern [Peru](https://www.britannica.com/place/Peru) and on the [Galápagos Islands](https://www.britannica.com/place/Galapagos-Islands). Boobies' bills are long, their bodies cigar-shaped, and their wings long, narrow, and angular. They fly high above the ocean looking for schools of [fish](https://www.britannica.com/animal/fish) and squid. When prey is sighted they plunge headlong into the water in a swift, vertical drop. Boobies nest in colonies but have a highly developed territorial sense. Many ritualized displays (e.g., head nodding and jabbing) are used to defend the individual's territory within the large breeding colony. Courtship also involves display—an elaborate [dance](https://www.britannica.com/science/courtship-dance-zoology) by the male in which the feet are raised alternately several times, followed by a gesture known to ornithologists as sky-pointing (the birds extend their wings horizontally and toward the tail, raise their heads, and emit a long, continuous whistle). The eggs, usually two in number, are laid on the ground in a [rudimentary](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rudimentary) nest. Boobies get their name from their tameness and lack of fear of humans; they were easily killed by early mariners, who named them boobies to denote their presumed lack of intelligence. [ Britannica Quiz Ultimate Animals Quiz ](/quiz/ultimate-animals-quiz) Though boobies are traditionally grouped in the order Pelecaniformes, some taxonomists have suggested that on the basis of genetic data, they (and the related [gannets](https://www.britannica.com/animal/gannet)) should be grouped with cormorants (family Phalacrocoracidae), darters (family Anhingidae), and frigate birds (family Fregatidae) in the order Suliformes. [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)This article was most recently revised and updated by [Amy Tikkanen](/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393).

Bayer

https://www.ft.com/content/33118c7f-c1af-3ea0-8eaf-134a0530c04f

Bayer confirms Werner Baumann as new chief Roula Khalaf, Editor of the FT, selects her favourite stories in this weekly newsletter. Bayer has confirmed Werner Baumann, a long-serving executive at the German life sciences heavyweight, will take over from CEO Marijn Dekkers. As the FT's Andrew Ward [reported last week](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1ede324c-d653-11e5-829b-8564e7528e54.html#axzz414B13qyJ), Mr Baumann, 53, had long been viewed as a successor to Mr Dekkers. However, instead of taking the chief executive role, Bayer said Mr Baumann will become chairman of its management board, and added that the board will have just seven members instead of eight. Mr Dekkers intends to end his contract early on April 30, as opposed to December 31, Bayer added in a statement. Mr Dekkers has been in charge since 2010 and made clear two years ago that he intended to step down. Mr Baumann has been at Bayer for 28 years and most recently has been in charge of strategy. He has also previously served as chief financial officer. Bayer said: Following rapid implementation of the realignment under Dr. Dekkers' leadership, Bayer is now entering a new era as a pure Life Science company. That is why the Supervisory Board believes this is now the right time to hand on responsibility for managing the company. Image above from Bayer

Oegarit

https://books.google.com/books?id=t9LHVdWLc7gC&pg=PA293

| | Syria & Lebanon Handbook: The Travel Guide Both Syria and Lebanon still labour under their media stereotypes as places of religious fanaticism, terrorism and intractable conflict. True, the region has had more than its fair share of wars, atrocities and suffering, and the Arab-Israeli conflict continues to cast its tragic shadow. Indeed, this is a conflict which goes right back to the dawn of history, resonating through the Old Testament stories of the origins of the Israelites, and the Exodus, when Moses led his people from exile in Egypt back to the Promised Land. But these same twists of religion, history and geography are also what makes this such a fascinating region to visit. Forget your preconceptions and go see for yourself; the day-to-day reality on the ground is a world away from the media stereotypes. Rather, you will find yourself stepping into a wonderful world of breathtakingly beautiful and well preserved historic monuments, stunning scenery, delicious food and diverse peoples.

Oegarit

https://books.google.com/books?id=vTrT-bZyuPcC&pg=PA5

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $70.99 Get this book in print Cambridge University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia edited by Roger D. Woodard About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Cambridge University Press . Copyright . Page 5 Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

Oegarit

https://books.google.com/books?id=2YWQZ6x56dAC&lpg=PA180&pg=PA15

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $20.73 Get this book in print Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra By Marguerite Yon About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Eisenbrauns . Copyright . Page 15 Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

Arata Isozaki

https://www.npr.org/2019/03/05/700044095/arata-isozaki-whose-hybrid-style-forged-new-paths-wins-pritzker-prize

Arata Isozaki, Whose Hybrid Style Forged 'New Paths,' Wins Pritzker Prize Arata Isozaki, Whose Hybrid Style Forged 'New Paths,' Wins Pritzker Prize Arata Isozaki spent much of his childhood in the shadow of World War II. As a native of the city of Oita, the Japanese architect grew up just across a slim body of water from Hiroshima, where the U.S. dropped the first atomic bomb — and he says he saw firsthand the ease with which proud human achievements could be leveled. "It was in complete ruins, and there was no architecture, no buildings and not even a city. Only barracks and shelters surrounded me," Isozaki, now 87, recalls in a recorded statement. "So, my first experience of architecture was the void of architecture, and I began to consider how people might rebuild their homes and cities." Isozaki won the [Pritzker Architecture Prize](https://www.npr.org/tags/166614364/pritzker-prize) on Tuesday, a lifetime achievement award so prestigious, it's often known as the Nobel Prize for architects. And according to the prize's judges, it was in part Isozaki's endless attempts to rebuild — to make something new from old forms, to experiment on the edge of what's possible — that earned him the honor. [Click here](#work).) "Clearly, he is one of the most influential figures in contemporary world architecture - on a constant search, not afraid to change and try new ideas. His architecture rests on profound understanding, not only of architecture but also of philosophy, history, theory and culture," reads the citation of the Pritzker jury, which was chaired this year by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer. "He has brought together East and West, not through mimicry or as a collage, but through the forging of new paths." Isozaki's best-known works span the globe — from Tokyo to Milan, from Los Angeles to Doha, Qatar. They include the Shanghai Symphony Hall, a curving saddle of a building in the midst of the Chinese metropolis, and the Center of Science and Industry, a gently bending fixture of Columbus, Ohio. In Barcelona, his Palau Sant Jordi arena became a major venue at the 1992 Summer Olympics. And in more than a quarter-century since those Olympic Games, the massive structure has played host to some of the world's biggest athletes and celebrities — even as it came to be a star in its own right, frequently featured on postcards of the Spanish city. But, as the jury noted, Isozaki was not selected for his buildings alone. "He has set an example of generosity," its citation added, "as he supports other architects and encourages them in competitions or through collaborative works." [David Gauld](http://www.davidgauldarchitect.com/), an architect based in New York City, was among the younger practitioners whose careers Isozaki helped foster. Gauld studied under the Pritzker laureate at Harvard University and worked directly with him for years afterwards. "He's my mentor," Gauld says, "and in many ways, my hero." Recent Pritzker Winners "He doesn't have a signature style. Like, some architects do a similar kind of style or look no matter what what the project is, no matter what the program is and no matter what the site is. Their buildings have a kind of similar look," Gauld says. "It was always [Isozaki's] approach to do something specific for the site, for the program. And so, consequently, no two of his buildings look alike." Case in point: LA's [Museum of Contemporary Art](https://www.moca.org/), which Isozaki designed in the 1980s. The museum's director, [Klaus Biesenbach](https://news.artnet.com/art-world/klaus-biesenbach-director-la-moca-1326776), who calls the building "a jewel out of its time," says the brilliance of the structure resides at least partly in how well suited it is, both to its environment and to the artworks it houses. "So I think it's actually a very LA piece, because it has this sunken pool quality, with beautiful skylights, but it's also a very much dedicated to the art that this museum is famous for," Biesenbach explains. Isozaki becomes the eighth Japanese architect to win the Pritzker since it was founded four decades ago. Along with the honor, he receives a bronze medal and a $100,000 grant. Below, you can find a brief gallery of some of Isozaki's most recognizable works — structures plucked from a body of work spans roughly six decades. "He never merely replicated the status quo but challenged it," the Pritzker jury writes. "And in his search for meaningful architecture, he created buildings of great quality that to this day defy categorizations, reflect his constant evolution, and are always fresh in their approach." [ ]Some more of Arata Isozaki's work [Return to the top of the story.](#return)

Rooivleis

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat

red meat Also found in: [Thesaurus](//www.freethesaurus.com/red+meat), [Medical](//medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat), [Idioms](//idioms.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat), [Wikipedia](//encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat). Related to red meat: [white meat](//www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat) red meat n. 1. Meat, such as beef or lamb, that is dark red before being cooked. 2. Language or discourse intended to stir the emotions of a given group, especially by appealing to or reinforcing partisan sentiments. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. red meat n (Cookery) any meat that is dark in colour, esp beef and lamb. Compare [white meat](white+meat) Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014 red′ meat′ n. any meat, as beef or lamb, that is red before cooking. Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Switch to [new thesaurus](//www.freethesaurus.com/red+meat) |Noun||1.||red meat - meat that is dark in color before cooking (as beef, venison, lamb, mutton)| Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc. Translations červené maso rødt kød punainen liha crveno meso 赤身肉 붉은 고기 rött kött เนื้อสีแดง thịt đỏ Collins Italian Dictionary 1st Edition © HarperCollins Publishers 1995 red meat→ [لـَحْمٌ أَحْمَر](//ar.thefreedictionary.com/%d9%84%d9%80%d9%8e%d8%ad%d9%92%d9%85%d9%8c+%d8%a3%d9%8e%d8%ad%d9%92%d9%85%d9%8e%d8%b1)červené maso rødt kød [rotes Fleisch](//de.thefreedictionary.com/rotes+Fleisch) [κόκκινο κρέας](//el.thefreedictionary.com/%ce%ba%cf%8c%ce%ba%ce%ba%ce%b9%ce%bd%ce%bf+%ce%ba%cf%81%ce%ad%ce%b1%cf%82) [carne roja](//es.thefreedictionary.com/carne+roja)punainen liha [viande rouge](//fr.thefreedictionary.com/viande+rouge)crveno meso [carne rossa](//it.thefreedictionary.com/carne+rossa)赤身肉 붉은 고기 [rood vlees](//nl.thefreedictionary.com/rood+vlees) [rødt kjøtt](//no.thefreedictionary.com/r%c3%b8dt+kj%c3%b8tt) [czerwone mięso](//pl.thefreedictionary.com/czerwone+mi%c4%99so) [carne vermelha](//pt.thefreedictionary.com/carne+vermelha) [красное мясо](//ru.thefreedictionary.com/%d0%ba%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b5+%d0%bc%d1%8f%d1%81%d0%be)rött kött เนื้อสีแดง [kırmızı et](//tr.thefreedictionary.com/k%c4%b1rm%c4%b1z%c4%b1+et)thịt đỏ [红色的肉类](//zh.thefreedictionary.com/%e7%ba%a2%e8%89%b2%e7%9a%84%e8%82%89%e7%b1%bb) Multilingual Translator © HarperCollins Publishers 2009

Rooivleis

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat

red meat Also found in: [Thesaurus](//www.freethesaurus.com/red+meat), [Medical](//medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat), [Idioms](//idioms.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat), [Wikipedia](//encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat). Related to red meat: [white meat](//www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat) red meat n. 1. Meat, such as beef or lamb, that is dark red before being cooked. 2. Language or discourse intended to stir the emotions of a given group, especially by appealing to or reinforcing partisan sentiments. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. red meat n (Cookery) any meat that is dark in colour, esp beef and lamb. Compare [white meat](white+meat) Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014 red′ meat′ n. any meat, as beef or lamb, that is red before cooking. Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Switch to [new thesaurus](//www.freethesaurus.com/red+meat) |Noun||1.||red meat - meat that is dark in color before cooking (as beef, venison, lamb, mutton)| Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc. Translations červené maso rødt kød punainen liha crveno meso 赤身肉 붉은 고기 rött kött เนื้อสีแดง thịt đỏ Collins Italian Dictionary 1st Edition © HarperCollins Publishers 1995 red meat→ [لـَحْمٌ أَحْمَر](//ar.thefreedictionary.com/%d9%84%d9%80%d9%8e%d8%ad%d9%92%d9%85%d9%8c+%d8%a3%d9%8e%d8%ad%d9%92%d9%85%d9%8e%d8%b1)červené maso rødt kød [rotes Fleisch](//de.thefreedictionary.com/rotes+Fleisch) [κόκκινο κρέας](//el.thefreedictionary.com/%ce%ba%cf%8c%ce%ba%ce%ba%ce%b9%ce%bd%ce%bf+%ce%ba%cf%81%ce%ad%ce%b1%cf%82) [carne roja](//es.thefreedictionary.com/carne+roja)punainen liha [viande rouge](//fr.thefreedictionary.com/viande+rouge)crveno meso [carne rossa](//it.thefreedictionary.com/carne+rossa)赤身肉 붉은 고기 [rood vlees](//nl.thefreedictionary.com/rood+vlees) [rødt kjøtt](//no.thefreedictionary.com/r%c3%b8dt+kj%c3%b8tt) [czerwone mięso](//pl.thefreedictionary.com/czerwone+mi%c4%99so) [carne vermelha](//pt.thefreedictionary.com/carne+vermelha) [красное мясо](//ru.thefreedictionary.com/%d0%ba%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b5+%d0%bc%d1%8f%d1%81%d0%be)rött kött เนื้อสีแดง [kırmızı et](//tr.thefreedictionary.com/k%c4%b1rm%c4%b1z%c4%b1+et)thịt đỏ [红色的肉类](//zh.thefreedictionary.com/%e7%ba%a2%e8%89%b2%e7%9a%84%e8%82%89%e7%b1%bb) Multilingual Translator © HarperCollins Publishers 2009

Rooivleis

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat

With this significant remark the Supreme Gobbler left him, and thenceforward the Pious Person dreamed of himself as white meat and dark until rudely awakened by decapitation. But the spermaceti itself, how bland and creamy that is; like the transparent, half-jellied, white meat of a cocoanut in the third month of its growth, yet far too rich to supply a substitute for butter. The native, first placing a calabash beneath the nose, as it were, of his curious-looking log-steed, for the purpose of receiving the grated fragments as they fall, mounts astride of it as if it were a hobby-horse, and twirling the inside of his hemispheres of cocoanut around the sharp teeth of the mother-of-pearl shell, the pure white meat falls in snowy showers into the receptacle provided. The stone came down with a thump on the white meat , and thereafter arose and fell in a sort of tom-tom accompaniment to the poet's song: These lizards, when cooked, yield a white meat , which is liked by those whose stomachs soar above all prejudices. A new study, published in the (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ijc.32547) International Journal of Cancer , suggested that reducing consumption of red meat and adding more white meat may help avoid breast cancer. Contrary to popular belief, consuming red meat and white meat (such as poultry) have equal effects on blood cholesterol levels, according to a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. It turns out the red or white meat debate is a draw.Scientists now rule that even that piece of chicken you replaced your roast beef with will have an identical effect on your cholesterol level as eating red meat. The researchers found out that even white meat has an identical effect on cholesterol levels in the body. Using a heavy knife, break the claws with one hard tap, if possible, and pick out the white meat , prising out the cartilage from the middle of the claw. The project will be spread over an area of 70sq km and produce 66,000 tonnes of high-quality white meat annually. The investment cost of the project is OMR100 million and is located on an area of 70 km square and has a capacity to produce 66 thousand tonnes of high quality white meat annually.

Rooivleis

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat

With this significant remark the Supreme Gobbler left him, and thenceforward the Pious Person dreamed of himself as white meat and dark until rudely awakened by decapitation. But the spermaceti itself, how bland and creamy that is; like the transparent, half-jellied, white meat of a cocoanut in the third month of its growth, yet far too rich to supply a substitute for butter. The native, first placing a calabash beneath the nose, as it were, of his curious-looking log-steed, for the purpose of receiving the grated fragments as they fall, mounts astride of it as if it were a hobby-horse, and twirling the inside of his hemispheres of cocoanut around the sharp teeth of the mother-of-pearl shell, the pure white meat falls in snowy showers into the receptacle provided. The stone came down with a thump on the white meat , and thereafter arose and fell in a sort of tom-tom accompaniment to the poet's song: These lizards, when cooked, yield a white meat , which is liked by those whose stomachs soar above all prejudices. A new study, published in the (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ijc.32547) International Journal of Cancer , suggested that reducing consumption of red meat and adding more white meat may help avoid breast cancer. Contrary to popular belief, consuming red meat and white meat (such as poultry) have equal effects on blood cholesterol levels, according to a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. It turns out the red or white meat debate is a draw.Scientists now rule that even that piece of chicken you replaced your roast beef with will have an identical effect on your cholesterol level as eating red meat. The researchers found out that even white meat has an identical effect on cholesterol levels in the body. Using a heavy knife, break the claws with one hard tap, if possible, and pick out the white meat , prising out the cartilage from the middle of the claw. The project will be spread over an area of 70sq km and produce 66,000 tonnes of high-quality white meat annually. The investment cost of the project is OMR100 million and is located on an area of 70 km square and has a capacity to produce 66 thousand tonnes of high quality white meat annually.

Rooivleis

http://www.foodandnutrition.org/January-February-2013/Color-Confusion-Identifying-Red-Meat-and-White-Meat/

The idea that red meat is less healthful than white meat may be generally undisputed; multiple studies link red meat consumption to increased health risks including diabetes, stroke, coronary heart disease, weight gain, certain cancers and all-cause mortality. But what exactly is "red meat?" A precise definition is hard to come by. Virtually all dietary studies categorize poultry and fish as "white meat" and four-legged land animals such as beef, pork and lamb as "red meat." Yet in culinary or cultural contexts, veal is often considered a white meat and duck or goose may be classified as red. Food scientists point to higher concentration of myglobin and slow-twitch muscle fibers as the primary determinant of red meat; however, the dark meat of chicken or turkey usually has more myoglobin than veal or pork. Even the U.S. Department of Agriculture seems inconsistent in its explanations. According to an online meat preparation fact sheet on lamb, the amount of myoglobin in the animal's muscle determines its meat color category. In a separate USDA fact sheet on poultry production, ratites (large flightless birds such as emu, ostrich and rhea) are identified as red meat because "the pH of their flesh is similar to beef." What is it about red meat that is so bad for us? Observational studies can detect a correlation between dietary patterns and health outcomes, but they cannot prove causation, nor can they provide much information about the mechanism by which certain foods, including red meat, may promote or undermine health. "I suspect that multiple factors contribute to adverse effects of red meat," says Walter Willett, MD, DrPH, chair of the department of nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health and a primary investigator in both the "Nurses' Health Study II" and the "Health Professionals Follow-up Study," from which many recent red meat associations are drawn. "High amounts of heme iron, which is absorbed even when we have adequate iron stores, is probably a contributing factor for type 2 diabetes," says Willett. "However, the high amounts of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol are also probably contributing risks of cardiovascular disease, and specific amino acids may also be a factor." Still, not one of these nutrients is consistent across the meat color categories (see chart). If we suspect that consuming myoglobin (or heme iron, or cholesterol, or fat) might shorten lives, why not collect, analyze and report the data on those nutrients, rather than continue to rely on vague and arbitrary designations like "red" and "white" meat? Furthermore, according to analysis of data from the "Health Professionals Follow-up Study" and "Nurses' Health Study II," people who eat the most beef, pork and lamb live less healthful lifestyles in general. They tend to exercise less, eat fewer vegetables, are more likely to smoke and less likely to take multivitamins. But given the steady stream of bad press for red meat, should we be surprised that health-conscious people tend to eat less of it? Are they healthier because they eat less red meat, or do they eat less red meat because we keep telling them it's bad for them? Another factor that looms large and is typically unaccounted for in dietary questionnaires is cooking method. Animal protein of any color cooked at high temperatures or over direct heat produces carcinogenic and atherogenic compounds. Without specifying preparation methods in these studies, it is impossible to distinguish between a char-broiled burger and a slow-braised pot roast. As new factors of potential research interest are identified, questionnaires are updated with new categories and questions, but the ability to examine longitudinal effects is often limited by the less-specific questions included in the earliest versions. Meanwhile, when it comes to improving public health, simple messages are usually the most effective. In that spirit, perhaps warning people about the dangers of "red meat" is the simplest way to encourage people to eat fewer burgers (and the fries and sodas that often accompany them), even if the color of the meat is not the primary culprit. But do we run the risk of creating the impression that chicken nuggets are more healthful than pork tenderloin?

Thulamela

http://www.krugerpark.co.za/thulamela-kruger-national-park.html

Archaeologists have recently excavated the tombs of an African king and queen who ruled here during the 16th century. They named her Queen Losha - because she was buried with her hands placed under her cheeks in a position of great respect known as losha, and him, King Ingwe - meaning leopard, because on the day his grave was found, a leopard was waiting as the excavating team returned to their vehicle. The royal enclosure at Thulamela accommodated a thousand people. Beyond the walled citadel, the hillsides are dotted with collapsed walls and signs of dwellings which indicate that up to 2 000 people may have lived here. There are also signs of lively trading. The people of Thulamela were skilled goldsmiths and their main currency was gold. This they traded, along with ivory, for glass beads and corn, with traders who came north of the Limpopo from what is today Mozambique. There is also evidence of contact with people from West Africa. During the 18th Century, the Baphalaborwa settled in present-day Phalaborwa. It is said that they originally came from the north and settled at Bushbuck Ridge. From there they moved to between the Letaba and Olifants Rivers where they called their settlement Phalaborwa, meaning 'better than the south'. Their main trade item was iron, which they smelted themselves.

Marit Larsen

http://www.maniadb.com/artist/126382

| | | | | | | | MAJOR ALBUMS MAJOR SONGS | from | I could try with the waltz I could try rock'n'roll I could try with the blues If a song would do I could sing it high or low When I let you go you know I thought it was for the best Now it is so obvious So here it is here it goes I could try it rock'n'roll A change your life forever tune If a song could get me you I could make it high or low Sing it on the radio If that is what I need to do If a song could get me you I could run for miles and miles I'd take off and I'd start flying I could cross land and sea If you'd just believe me I should not have hurt you so This old house is not a home Without you here there's no use I've got no time left to lose So here it is here it goes I could try it rock'n'roll Change your life forever tune If a song could get me you I could make it high or low Sing it on the radio If that is what I need to do If a song could get me you If a song could get me through I'd sing my way right back to you Tell me how to make it right Tell me now I'll start tonight I know I could make it last I swear to you that if I knew What I was getting myself into I wouldn't answer to my fears I'd never leave you standing there Just look at me If you'd only see me I would prove my love for you I could swallow half the moon Just tell me where tell me when I will have you back again Yeah here it is here it goes I could try it rock'n'roll A change your life forever tune If a song could get me you I could make it high or low Sing it on the radio If that is what I need to do If a song could get me you here it is here it goes I could try it rock'n'roll A change your life forever tune If a song could get me you I could make it high or low Sing it on the radio If that is what I need to do If a song could get me you |- || from | Listen to me as I explain this situation Its not like I wanna destroy his reputation We are still together But we are not moving on When we first met it was the perfect combination Now when I look at him it fills me with frustration What is a girl to do when she is not having fun [CHORUS] How can I tell him I have to try There is no easy way of saying goodbye How do I break it Its just no good My heart is telling me that I really should I must be subtle I must be strong the feeling is gone I think we're going in the opposite direction No longer think that we are making a connection I am so unhappy I'd rather be alone In the beginning it was one special occasion Now when I talk to him his mind is on vacation CHORUS 2X I want it over all said and done How can I tell him that he isn't the one I must be subtle I must be strong the feeling is gone |- || from | Got introduced to you by a friend You were cute and all that baby you set the trend Yes you did oh The next thing I know we're down at the cinema We're sitting there you said kiss me What's that about You're moving too fast I don't understand you I'm not ready yet baby I can't pretend No I can't The best I can do is tell you to talk to me It's possible eventual Love will find a way Love will find a way Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Here's how I play here's where you stand Here's what to prove to get any further than where it's been I'll make it clear not gonna tell you twice Take it slow keep pushing me You're pushing me away Pushing me away Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na Don't say you love me You don't even know me baby Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready |- || from | Got introduced to you by a friend You were cute and all that baby you set the trend Yes you did oh The next thing I know we're down at the cinema We're sitting there you said kiss me What's that about You're moving too fast I don't understand you I'm not ready yet baby I can't pretend No I can't The best I can do is tell you to talk to me It's possible eventual Love will find a way Love will find a way Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Here's how I play here's where you stand Here's what to prove to get any further than where it's been I'll make it clear not gonna tell you twice Take it slow keep pushing me You're pushing me away Pushing me away Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na Don't say you love me You don't even know me baby Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready |- || from | I lie awake at night See things in black and white I've only got you inside my mind You know you have made me blind I lie awake and pray That you will look my way I have all this longing in my heart I knew it right from the start Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you I used to write your name And put it in a frame And sometime I think I hear you call Right from my bedroom wall You stay a little while And touch me with your smile And what can I say to make you mine To reach out for you in time Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you Oh pretty boy Say you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you |- || from | Got introduced to you by a friend You were cute and all that baby you set the trend Yes you did oh The next thing I know we're down at the cinema We're sitting there you said kiss me What's that about You're moving too fast I don't understand you I'm not ready yet baby I can't pretend No I can't The best I can do is tell you to talk to me It's possible eventual Love will find a way Love will find a way Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Here's how I play here's where you stand Here's what to prove to get any further than where it's been I'll make it clear not gonna tell you twice Take it slow keep pushing me You're pushing me away Pushing me away Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na Don't say you love me You don't even know me baby Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready |- || from | Mirror Mirror lie to me Show me what I wanna see Mirror Mirror lie to me Why don't I like the girl I see The one who's standing right in front of me Why don't I think before I speak I should have listened to that voice inside me I must be stupid must be crazy must be out of my mind To say the kind of things I said last night Mirror Mirror hanging on the wall You don't have to tell me Who's the biggest fool of all Mirror Mirror I wish you could lie to me And bring my baby back Bring my baby back to me Mirror Mirror lie to me Show me what I wanna see Mirror Mirror lie to me Show me what I wanna see Why did I let you walk away When all I had to do was say I'm sorry I let my pride get in the way In the heat of the moment I was to blame I must be stupid must be crazy must be out of my mind Now in the cold light of the day I realize Mirror Mirror hanging on the wall You don't have to tell me Who's the biggest fool of all Mirror Mirror I wish you could lie to me And bring my baby back Bring my baby back to me If only wishes could be dreams And all my dreams could come true There would be two of us standing here in front of you If you could show me that someone that I used to be Bring back my baby my baby to me my baby to me Mirror Mirror hanging on the wall You don't have to tell me Who's the biggest fool of all Mirror Mirror I wish you could lie to me And bring my baby back Bring my baby back to me my baby back Mirror Mirror hanging on the wall baby baby You don't have to tell me Who's the biggest fool of all Mirror Mirror I wish you could lie to me And bring my baby back Bring my baby back to me Mirror Mirror lie to me Show me what I wanna see Mirror Mirror lie to me Mirror Mirror lie to me Show me what I wanna see Mirror Mirror lie to me |- || from | I lie awake at night See things in black and white I've only got you inside my mind You know you have made me blind I lie awake and pray That you will look my way I have all this longing in my heart I knew it right from the start Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you I used to write your name And put it in a frame And sometime I think I hear you call Right from my bedroom wall You stay a little while And touch me with your smile And what can I say to make you mine To reach out for you in time Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you Oh pretty boy Say you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you |- || from | From the moment you looked at me And ever since you called my name You've been everything that I've seen And know I'm caught up in this game My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... They're trying to build a fence By saying that this won't last They tell me I don't have a chance That everything moves too fast But every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything you do Everything that you do Everything you say Everything that you say Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... |- || from | From the moment you looked at me And ever since you called my name You've been everything that I've seen And know I'm caught up in this game My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... They're trying to build a fence By saying that this won't last They tell me I don't have a chance That everything moves too fast But every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything you do Everything that you do Everything you say Everything that you say Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... |- || from | |- || from | Verse 1 Well I wonder could it be When I was dreaming 'bout you baby You were dreaming of me Call me crazy, call me blind To still be suffering is stupid after all of this time Pre-chorus 1 Did I lose my love to someone better And does she love you like I do I do, you know I really really do Chorus Well hey So much I need to say Been lonely since the day The day you went away So sad but true For me there's only you Been crying since the day The day you went away Verse 2 I remember date and time September twenty second Sunday twenty five after nine In the doorway with your case No longer shouting at each other There were tears on our faces Pre-chorus 2 And we were letting go of something special Something we'll never have again I know, I guess I really really know Chorus The day you went away The day you went away Pre-chorus 1 Chorus Bridge Why do we never know what we've got 'til it's gone How could I carry on The day you went away Cause I've been missing you so much I have to say Been crying since the day The day you went away The day you went away The day you went away |3:04 || from | I wish that I was her and I wish that she was me You gotta let her go, and I know that you agree 'Cause how could this ever start? If you're afraid to break her heart? You say you love me so You have to let her know *All that she wants is you All that she sees is you All that you gotta do It's to set her free That's what That's what What you do about me Love's not an easy thing Always somebody gets hurt I know you were meant for me, even though she saw you first But deal with her honestly I won't let you cheat with me I guess you never knew What you put yourself into * Repeat We could beautiful We could be so special We could be wonderful * Repeat x2 |3:52 || from | I'm lying in my bed all alone Called you once again no one is home It's raining outside on Saturday night Turning out the light again I tried My friends say I'm too good too good for you And maybe that is true well I don't care What do they all know they got it all wrong This is so unfair they're playing our song Nobody gets too much heaven no more It's much harder to come by I'm waiting in line Nobody gets too much love anymore It's as high as a mountain And harder to climb Something's going on what is wrong I want you to be here why don't you come And spend some time with me can't you see Have we come undone Is this the end of our song Nobody gets too much heaven no more It's much harder to come by I'm waiting in line Nobody gets too much love anymore It's as high as a mountain And harder to climb And harder to climb Nobody gets too much heaven no more It's much harder to come by I'm waiting in line Nobody gets too much love anymore It's as high as a mountain And harder to climb How do I deal With how I feel How to reveal Oooh what is real love As another day fades away So I say Nobody gets too much heaven no more It's much harder to come by I'm waiting in line Nobody gets too much love anymore It's as high as a mountain And harder to climb Nobody gets too much heaven no more It's much harder to come by I'm waiting in line Nobody gets too much love anymore It's as high as a mountain And harder to climb |4:37 || from | I lie awake at night See things in black and white I've only got you inside my mind You know you have made me blind I lie awake and pray That you will look my way I have all this longing in my heart I knew it right from the start Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you I used to write your name And put it in a frame And sometime I think I hear you call Right from my bedroom wall You stay a little while And touch me with your smile And what can I say to make you mine To reach out for you in time Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you Oh pretty boy Say you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I love you Like I never ever loved no one before you Pretty pretty boy of mine Just tell me you love me too Oh my pretty pretty boy I need you Oh my pretty pretty boy I do Let me inside Make me stay right beside you |- || from | Got introduced to you by a friend You were cute and all that baby you set the trend Yes you did oh The next thing I know we're down at the cinema We're sitting there you said kiss me What's that about You're moving too fast I don't understand you I'm not ready yet baby I can't pretend No I can't The best I can do is tell you to talk to me It's possible eventual Love will find a way Love will find a way Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Here's how I play here's where you stand Here's what to prove to get any further than where it's been I'll make it clear not gonna tell you twice Take it slow keep pushing me You're pushing me away Pushing me away Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na Don't say you love me You don't even know me baby Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready |3:58 || from | Everytime I think I've had enough of you I take you back again Not because I need a friend Just because I can't pretend Like the others do You think you're really serious Clever and mysterious Talking like you're dangerous Talking like a fool Every day there's someone else Who wants to get with me I'm telling you If you know what's good for you Treat me like you used to do Love me like before 'Cos all I can do is watch and wonder where the boy I know has gone You say that you want me, well it's Time to tell your friends where they belong You can find it in your heart Give a little love Have a little faith In the two of us You can find it in your soul Give a little love Have a little faith In the two of us 'Cos all I can do is watch and wonder where the boy I know has gone Little boy I don't want anything to do with you Get on your knees I'm the one you have to please Not the ones you want to be I don't think you're cool 'Cos soon you can only watch and wonder Where the girl you knew has gone You say that you want me, well it's Time to tell your friends where they belong 'Cos soon you can only watch and wonder Where the girl you knew has gone And do you really wanna lose a friend You gotta understand or it has to end 'Cos I don't wanna wait for you anymore Can't take it anymore You can find it in your heart Give a little love Have a little faith In the two of us You can find it in your soul Give a little love Have a little faith In the two of us - |4:14 || from | VERSE 1 Sitting on the bus Looking through the window And I close my eyes I see the shade of your smiling face Your smiling face When you walk in through the door Smiling face Like I've never seen before VERSE 2 Standing in the rain Nearly washed the day away Then I think of you I know the sight of your smiling face Your smiling face And it's always here with me Smiling face Well I wonder could it be CHORUS I still know That I'm never gonna find you But I do believe That you're standing right behind Will I ever get The answer to my question Life will go on, on VERSE 3 Lying on my bed Staring at the ceiling Then I close my eyes again The only thing that's clear to me Is your smiling face Maybe I should wake again Smiling face Maybe I should let it end CHORUS 버스에 앉아서 창 밖을 보며 그리고 난 눈을 감아요 난 당신의 웃는 얼굴의 그늘을 볼 수 있어요 당신의 웃는 얼굴 당신이 저 문을 걸어 들어올 때 미소짓는 얼굴 내가 전에 보지 못한 모습이에요 비속에 서서 오늘을 거의 씻어 내리며 그리고 난 당신을 생각해요 난 당신의 웃는 얼굴을 알아요 당신의 웃는 얼굴 그리고 그건 항상 나와 함께 하죠 미소짓는 얼굴 그럴 수 있는지 궁금하군요 나 여전히 알고 있어요 당신을 절대 찾지 못할 거란 걸 하지만 난 정말 믿어요 당신이 바로 뒤에 서있다는 걸 내가 얻을 수 있을까요? 내 질문에 대한 답을 이렇게 계속 될 꺼에요 내 침대에 누워서 천장을 바라보며 다시 난 눈을 감아요 나에게 분명한 단 한가지는 바로 당신의 미소짓는 얼굴이예요 다시 깨어나야 하겠죠 미소짓는 얼굴 끝이 나도록 내버뤄 둬야 하겠죠 나 여전히 알고 있어요 당신을 절대 찾지 못 할 거란 걸 하지만 난 정말 믿어요 당신이 바로 뒤에 서있다는 걸 내가 얻을 수 있을까요? 내 질문에 대한 답을 이렇게 계속 될 꺼에요 |- || from | From the moment you looked at me And ever since you called my name You've been everything that I've seen And know I'm caught up in this game My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... They're trying to build a fence By saying that this won't last They tell me I don't have a chance That everything moves too fast But every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... That everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... My mind is spinning round and around There's something special I have found Every time I close my eyes All I can think of is you and me Oh baby can't you see That everything you do Everything you do Everything that you do Everything you say Everything that you say Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... Everything you say Everything that you say Makes me wanna go... Everything you do Everything that you do Makes me wanna go... |- || from | Got introduced to you by a friend You were cute and all that baby you set the trend Yes you did oh The next thing I know we're down at the cinema We're sitting there you said kiss me What's that about You're moving too fast I don't understand you I'm not ready yet baby I can't pretend No I can't The best I can do is tell you to talk to me It's possible eventual Love will find a way Love will find a way Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Here's how I play here's where you stand Here's what to prove to get any further than where it's been I'll make it clear not gonna tell you twice Take it slow keep pushing me You're pushing me away Pushing me away Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na oooo na na na na na na na na na na na na na na Don't say you love me You don't even know me baby Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready Don't say your heart's in a hurry It's not like we're gonna get married Give me give me some time Don't say you love me You don't even know me If you really want me Then give me some time Don't go there baby Not before I'm ready REVIEW

Louis Maqhubela

http://revisions.co.za/biographies/louis-maqhubela/

Born in Durban, Maqhubela moved with his family to Johannesburg in 1951. In 1957, while still at school at Nakene High School in Orlando, Soweto, Maqhubela, encouraged by Ephraim Ngatane (qv.), enrolled for art classes at the Polly Street Art Centre, where he studied under Cecil Skotnes (qv.) and Sydney Kumalo (qv.), later also studying at Polly Street's successor, the Jubilee Art Centre well into the 1960s. At this time, Kumalo stamped himself as the major influence in the development of Maqhubela's early style. Maqhubela is also recorded as having received some practical guidance from the Italian-born South African artist, Guiseppe Cattaneo (b.1929). The year in which Maqhubela matriculated, 1959, was also the year that the apartheid government definitively closed 'white' universities to black students, and rather than studying architecture or fine art, as he had hoped, the young Maqhubela – by all accounts of a studious and intellectual cast of mind – was forced to get a job, working as a decorative plasterer and later mosaicist in the housing Section of the Non-European Affairs Department. In this capacity he created embellishments mainly for schools in Soweto, but also in other government buildings like Baragwanath Hospital in Soweto, where he executed a series of accomplished and charming mosaics on mainly animal themes in the Children's Cerebral Palsy Ward, as well as other public venues like the Oppenheimer Towers in White City Jabavu in Soweto and the Mofolo Community Centre. Until the mid 1960s Maqhubela's work, notwithstanding its occasionally registered elements of international trends of the time, fitted fairly snugly into the formulae and subject matter of black South African 'township' art. That was all to change with a three-month tour of Europe in 1966. During this time he met with the already-emigrated Gerard Sekoto (qv.), but more importantly in terms of his own artistic evolution, was exposed to the art of modernists like Paul Klee in the flesh. On this trip Maqhubela also made contact and worked with the émigré South African artist, Douglas Portway (1922–1993), an encounter which definitively shifted Maqhubela's art away from primitivising expressionism towards an internationalising modernist abstraction – though still with an identifiably African cast in choices and harmonies of colour and qualities of line. Maqhubela left South Africa for Spain in 1973, before settling in London in 1978, and furthering his studies at Goldsmiths College in 1984–5, and the Slade School of Art between 1985 and 1988. Still resident in London, Maqhubela runs a successful art practice via his own website, producing work that, while it manifests the philosophical quality of international modernism, nevertheless remembers in often barely definable ways, the country of his youth. History will judge the final quality of Maqhubela's work in the South African tradition, but in the meantime the importance of the bridge that he created for township artists, away from prescriptive expressionism and into internationalist styles and concerns, can hardly be overestimated. Ivor Powell Born Durban, 1939. Training Studied part-time at the Polly Street and Jubilee Art Centres under Cecil Skotnes (qv.) and Sydney Kumalo (qv.). Exhibitions 1961: Artists of Fame and Promise, Lawrence Adler Galleries, Johannesburg. 1962: Artists of Fame and Promise, Adler Fielding Galleries, Johannesburg. 1963: Polly Street Artists, Lidchi Art Gallery, Cape Town. 1966: Artists of Fame and Promise, Adler Fielding Galleries, Johannesburg. 1967: Solo exhibition, Adler Fielding Galleries, Johannesburg; African Art, Piccadilly Gallery, London; Art SA Today, Durban Art Gallery. 1968: Solo Exhibition, Lidchi Art Gallery, Johannesburg. 1969: Contemporary African Art, Camden Arts Centre, London; Polly Street Artists, Helen de Leeuw Gallery, Johannesburg; Art SA Today, Durban Art Gallery. 1970: Solo exhibition, Gallery International, Cape Town; Joint exhibition with Sydney Kumalo and Geoffrey Armstrong, Lidchi Art Gallery, Johannesburg; Johannesburg Artists – Diamond Jubilee exhibition of the JAG, Johannesburg Art Gallery. 1974: Festival of SA Graphics and Multiples, Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg; Group exhibition, Gallery International, Cape Town. 1976: Group exhibition, Gallery International, Cape Town. 1981: Black Art Today, Jabulani Standard Bank, Soweto. 1983: Art and Artists of SA, University of the Witwatersrand Galleries, Johannesburg. 1986–7:Johannesburg Art and Artists: Selections from a Century, Johannesburg Art Gallery. 1987: Contemporary SA Prints and Drawings, Iziko South African National Gallery, Cape Town. Awards 1959: Rembrandt Company Schools Exhibition (prize) 1961: Artists of Fame and Promise (Second prize) 1969: Art SA Today (Cambridge Shirt Award) Collections Africana Museum, Johannesburg; Anglo-American Collection; Johannesburg Art Gallery Collection; Iziko South African National Gallery; Standard Bank Collection; University of the Witwatersrand Collection; MTN Art Collection. Louis Maqhubela. Source. The Classic. Vol. 3. No. 2. 1969. Photograph facing page 28. Photographer: Peter Magubane. ____________________________________________________________________________________________ The three works (plates [20](http://www.revisions.co.za/gallery/louis-maqhubela/maqhubela_louis_1.jpg/), [21](http://www.revisions.co.za/gallery/louis-maqhubela/maqhubela_louis_2.jpg/), [22)](http://www.revisions.co.za/gallery/louis-maqhubela/maqhubela_louis_3.jpg/) by Louis Maqhubela included here reflect something of his amazing trajectory as an artist over a period of some nine years between 1963 and 1972. Saturday morning (1963) is representative of what Esmé Berman has dubbed 'his immature township illustrations' which Maqhubela eschewed in favour of developing his skill and artistic programme in a disciplined manner. [1](#fn:bad) In short, he was never prepared to accept either the term or the status of a 'township' artist. While he could have made more immediate money by adapting himself to the 'conventionalised figurative expressionism' demanded by the growing market for 'township art', he opted to explore the rigours of hard study and above all the potential of drawing. The leap in Maqhubela's growth as an artist was assisted by his winning entry in the Artists of Fame and Promise competition of 1966. This allowed him to travel and study abroad. Here he met expatriate figures such as Gerard Sekoto (qv.) and Douglas Portway. His encounter with Portway on one hand, and the work of Paul Klee (1879–1940) on the other, revolutionised his style, which adopted their playful, inventive linearity and soft, luminous forms, which is easily evident in [Boy and horse](http://www.revisions.co.za/gallery/louis-maqhubela/maqhubela_louis_2.jpg/) (1970), produced in South Africa after his return. [Untitled Abstract](http://www.revisions.co.za/gallery/louis-maqhubela/maqhubela_louis_3.jpg/) (1972) shows his total departure from figuration and his focus on richer colour and visionary effects. Maqhubela's artistic dialogue was by this stage no longer engaging with South African political and cultural issues. He left the country for Spain in 1973 and in 1978 finally settled in London where he studied formally at Goldsmiths' College and the Slade School. His contact with British art and artists has fostered further change and new directions in his work, as his recent exhibitions in London demonstrate. - Esmé Berman. 1983. Art and Artists of South Africa. A.A. Balkema. Cape Town and Rotterdam. p.270. Hayden Proud

Louis Maqhubela

http://www.artfirst.co.uk/louis_maqhubela/biography.html

|LOUIS MAQHUBELA| | | | | Louis Maqhubela Very sadly Louis Maqhubela and his wife Tana died from Covid-19 within days of one another in October. It is devastating for the family, Lindi, Tsiki and Thami, and the cherished grandchildren. Our hearts go out to them. Tributes and messages of affection from fellow artists and collectors reflect their warm admiration and respect for Maqhubela's art of spiritual abstraction and radiance, suffused with memories of his earlier life in South Africa. His legacy is significant and is well recorded in the book A Vigil of Departure – Louis Khehla Maqhubela; a retrospective 1960 – 2010which accompanied his exhibition at the Standard Bank Gallery in Johannesburg, curated by Marilyn Martin. The Maqhubela's were exuberantly welcomed to the opening, attended by family members and South African friends, artists, and key figures active in the newly democratic South Africa. The exhibition travelled to the Iziko S A National Gallery and the Durban Art Gallery. RIP dear Louis and Tana. From early figurative scenes of township life in Johannesburg, Maqhubela evolved a more abstract mode of painting, becoming one of the pioneers of modern art in South Africa. His work is characterised by a specific language of forms which float or move in a radiant, atmospheric space. Sometimes a graphic element of thin black lines appears describing animals or human figures. In spirit and form they evoke Paul Klee but what they describe is part of Maqhubela's African narrative. Recent canvases refer increasingly to traditional African forms; Pondo, Zulu, Ndbele–all of them filtered through memory and arranged in a magical, lyrical coloured space with richly worked surface textures. Painting on canvas, oil or gouache on paper, he was recognised early in his career in South Africa, where in 1967 he was hailed as the first black painter of distinction with first prize in the Adler Fielding Gallery's Artists of Fame and Promise exhibition. The award came with a three month travel bursary to Europe and the UK. After further prizes, he left South Africa in 1973, moving first to Spain, and then London, where he has lived and worked ever since. Maqhubela visited South Africa in the momentous year of 1994 when Mandela was elected President, and again in 2001, 2002, 2004, and recently in 2010, for the opening of his major retrospective exhibition, A Vigil of Departure (1960–2010). This long awaited survey opened at the Standard Bank Gallery, Johannesburg and toured to Iziko National Gallery Cape Town, and to the Durban Art Gallery, Natal. Marilyn Martin, former Director of the South African National Gallery, was both curator and the author of the distinguished catalogue which accompanied the exhibition. This was the first occasion on which Maqhubela's work drawn from five decades, could be viewed in his own country. Maqhubela's paintings and drawings have entered the Iziko National Gallery of South Africa and Johannesburg Art Gallery collections, as well as the majority of corporate and public collections throughout South Africa. In London he is represented at the Victoria & Albert Museum, and in the USA by the National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.

Attaliede

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Strab.+13.4.1&redirect=true

This text is part of: Search the Perseus Catalog for: Table of Contents: [book 6](javascript:toggleExpand('N65542');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N65553');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N65745');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N65889');) [book 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N66070');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N66213');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N66561');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N66753');) [chapter fragments](javascript:toggleExpand('N66909');) [book 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N67954');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N68061');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N68469');) [chapter 6](javascript:toggleExpand('N68721');) [book 9](javascript:toggleExpand('N69178');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N69189');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N69489');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N70005');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N70221');) [book 10](javascript:toggleExpand('N70738');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N70749');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N70953');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N71277');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N71565');) [book 11](javascript:toggleExpand('N72082');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N72189');) [chapter 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N73245');) [book 12](javascript:toggleExpand('N73594');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N73665');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N73809');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N74325');) [book 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N74902');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N74913');) [book 14](javascript:toggleExpand('N76150');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N76161');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N76749');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N77109');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N77289');) [](xmltoc?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D13%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D1) A kind of hegemony is held over these places by Pergamum, which is a famous city and for a long time prospered along with the Attalic kings; indeed I must begin my next description here, and first I must show briefly the origin of the kings and the end to which they came. Now Pergamum was a treasure-hold of Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles, who was one of the successors of Alexander, and its people are settled on the very summit of the mountain; the mountain is cone-like and ends in a sharp peak. The custody of this stronghold and the treasure, which amounted to nine thousand talents, was entrusted to Philetaerus of Tieium, who was a eunuch from boyhood; for it came to pass at a certain burial, when a spectacle was being given at which many people were present, that the nurse who was carrying Philetaerus, still an infant, was caught in the crowd and pressed so hard that the child was incapacitated. He was a eunuch, therefore, but he was well trained and proved worthy of this trust. Now for a time he continued loyal to Lysimachus, but he had differences with Arsinoe, the wife of Lysimachus, who slandered him, and so he caused Pergamum to revolt, and governed it to suit the occasion, since he saw that it was ripe for a change; for Lysimachus, beset with domestic troubles, was forced to slay his son Agathocles, and Seleucus Nicator invaded his country and overthrew him, and then he himself was overthrown and treacherously murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus. During these disorders the eunuch continued to be in charge of the fortress and to manage things through promises and courtesies in general, always catering to any man who was powerful or near at hand. At any rate, he continued lord of the stronghold and the treasure for twenty years. This work is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/). An [XML version](dltext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198) of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system.

Attaliede

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.8.1&redirect=true

This text is part of: Search the Perseus Catalog for: Table of Contents: [Attica](javascript:toggleExpand('N65542');) [chapter 23](javascript:toggleExpand('N67446');) [chapter 27](javascript:toggleExpand('N67890');) [chapter 28](javascript:toggleExpand('N68022');) [chapter 29](javascript:toggleExpand('N68166');) [Corinth](javascript:toggleExpand('N69823');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N70071');) [chapter 20](javascript:toggleExpand('N71775');) [chapter 21](javascript:toggleExpand('N71907');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N72363');) [chapter 26](javascript:toggleExpand('N72495');) [chapter 29](javascript:toggleExpand('N72831');) [chapter 30](javascript:toggleExpand('N72975');) [chapter 31](javascript:toggleExpand('N73107');) [chapter 32](javascript:toggleExpand('N73239');) [chapter 34](javascript:toggleExpand('N73443');) [chapter 35](javascript:toggleExpand('N73599');) [Laconia](javascript:toggleExpand('N74032');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N74268');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N74400');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N74772');) [chapter 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N74916');) [chapter 9](javascript:toggleExpand('N75048');) [chapter 11](javascript:toggleExpand('N75324');) [chapter 12](javascript:toggleExpand('N75468');) [chapter 14](javascript:toggleExpand('N75732');) [chapter 15](javascript:toggleExpand('N75864');) [chapter 16](javascript:toggleExpand('N76008');) [chapter 18](javascript:toggleExpand('N76272');) [chapter 19](javascript:toggleExpand('N76476');) [chapter 20](javascript:toggleExpand('N76644');) [chapter 22](javascript:toggleExpand('N76908');) [chapter 23](javascript:toggleExpand('N77076');) [chapter 24](javascript:toggleExpand('N77220');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N77364');) [Messenia](javascript:toggleExpand('N77641');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N77877');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N78117');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N78333');) [chapter 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N78477');) [chapter 9](javascript:toggleExpand('N78645');) [chapter 12](javascript:toggleExpand('N78981');) [chapter 16](javascript:toggleExpand('N79425');) [chapter 17](javascript:toggleExpand('N79557');) [chapter 20](javascript:toggleExpand('N79881');) [chapter 21](javascript:toggleExpand('N80013');) [chapter 23](javascript:toggleExpand('N80265');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N80493');) [chapter 27](javascript:toggleExpand('N80733');) [chapter 29](javascript:toggleExpand('N80985');) [chapter 31](javascript:toggleExpand('N81237');) [chapter 34](javascript:toggleExpand('N81573');) [chapter 35](javascript:toggleExpand('N81729');) [Elis 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N81970');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N81990');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N82422');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N82674');) [chapter 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N82806');) [chapter 10](javascript:toggleExpand('N83034');) [chapter 11](javascript:toggleExpand('N83166');) [chapter 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N83418');) [chapter 14](javascript:toggleExpand('N83562');) [chapter 15](javascript:toggleExpand('N83694');) [chapter 17](javascript:toggleExpand('N83958');) [chapter 19](javascript:toggleExpand('N84210');) [chapter 20](javascript:toggleExpand('N84342');) [chapter 21](javascript:toggleExpand('N84474');) [chapter 24](javascript:toggleExpand('N84894');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N85038');) [Elis 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N85459');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N85587');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N85731');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N85935');) [chapter 6](javascript:toggleExpand('N86199');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N86343');) [chapter 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N87039');) [chapter 14](javascript:toggleExpand('N87183');) [chapter 15](javascript:toggleExpand('N87351');) [chapter 19](javascript:toggleExpand('N87819');) [chapter 20](javascript:toggleExpand('N88011');) [chapter 21](javascript:toggleExpand('N88251');) [chapter 22](javascript:toggleExpand('N88395');) [chapter 24](javascript:toggleExpand('N88647');) [Achaia](javascript:toggleExpand('N88996');) [chapter 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N89136');) [chapter 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N89280');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N89412');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N89544');) [chapter 10](javascript:toggleExpand('N90168');) [chapter 15](javascript:toggleExpand('N90756');) [chapter 16](javascript:toggleExpand('N90900');) [chapter 17](javascript:toggleExpand('N91032');) [chapter 18](javascript:toggleExpand('N91212');) [chapter 19](javascript:toggleExpand('N91380');) [chapter 21](javascript:toggleExpand('N91632');) [chapter 22](javascript:toggleExpand('N91812');) [chapter 23](javascript:toggleExpand('N91956');) [chapter 24](javascript:toggleExpand('N92100');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N92268');) [chapter 26](javascript:toggleExpand('N92436');) [Arcadia](javascript:toggleExpand('N92773');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N93069');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N93201');) [chapter 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N93561');) [chapter 9](javascript:toggleExpand('N93717');) [chapter 10](javascript:toggleExpand('N93849');) [chapter 11](javascript:toggleExpand('N93981');) [chapter 14](javascript:toggleExpand('N94341');) [chapter 24](javascript:toggleExpand('N95301');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N95481');) [chapter 27](javascript:toggleExpand('N95757');) [chapter 30](javascript:toggleExpand('N96141');) [chapter 35](javascript:toggleExpand('N96609');) [chapter 36](javascript:toggleExpand('N96741');) [chapter 37](javascript:toggleExpand('N96873');) [chapter 38](javascript:toggleExpand('N97029');) [chapter 41](javascript:toggleExpand('N97329');) [chapter 42](javascript:toggleExpand('N97461');) [chapter 50](javascript:toggleExpand('N98277');) [chapter 53](javascript:toggleExpand('N98601');) [Boeotia](javascript:toggleExpand('N98842');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N99246');) [chapter 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N100050');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N101190');) [chapter 30](javascript:toggleExpand('N101718');) [chapter 32](javascript:toggleExpand('N101994');) [chapter 34](javascript:toggleExpand('N102222');) [chapter 38](javascript:toggleExpand('N102666');) [chapter 39](javascript:toggleExpand('N102798');) [chapter 40](javascript:toggleExpand('N102978');) [Phocis and Ozolian Locri](javascript:toggleExpand('N103231');) [chapter 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N103251');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N103551');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N103683');) [chapter 8](javascript:toggleExpand('N104055');) [chapter 9](javascript:toggleExpand('N104187');) [chapter 12](javascript:toggleExpand('N104535');) [chapter 13](javascript:toggleExpand('N104679');) [chapter 17](javascript:toggleExpand('N105111');) [chapter 19](javascript:toggleExpand('N105375');) [chapter 22](javascript:toggleExpand('N105747');) [chapter 23](javascript:toggleExpand('N105915');) [chapter 25](javascript:toggleExpand('N106191');) [chapter 29](javascript:toggleExpand('N106623');) [chapter 31](javascript:toggleExpand('N106875');) [chapter 32](javascript:toggleExpand('N107031');) [chapter 33](javascript:toggleExpand('N107271');) [chapter 35](javascript:toggleExpand('N107535');) [chapter 36](javascript:toggleExpand('N107667');) [](xmltoc?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D8%3Asection%3D1) It is pertinent to add here an account of Attalus, because he too is one of the Athenian eponymoi. A Macedonian of the name of Docimus, a general of Antigonus, who afterwards surrendered both himself and his property to Lysimachus, had a Paphlagonian eunuch called Philetaerus. All that Philetaerus did to further the revolt from Lysimachus, and how he won over Seleucus, will form an episode in my account of Lysimachus. Attalus, however, son of Attalus and nephew of Philetaerus, received the kingdom from his cousin Eumenes, who handed it over. The greatest of his achievements was his forcing the Gauls to retire from the sea into the country which they still hold. This work is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/). An [XML version](dltext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160) of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system.

Attaliede

http://www.livius.org/articles/person/eumenes-ii-soter/?

This page is a stub. It will be expanded to a full-fledged article. Eumenes II Soter Successor of: [Attalus I Soter](/person/attalus-i-soter/) Relatives - Father: [Attalus I Soter](/person/attalus-i-soter/) - Mother: Apollonis of [Cyzicus](/articles/place/cyzicus/) - Wife: [Stratonice IV](/person/stratonice-iv/), daughter of [Ariarathes IV](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/ariarathes-iv-eusebes/ )of [Cappadocia](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/cappadocia/ ) - Son: [Attalus III Philometor](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/attalus-iii-philometor/ ) Main deeds - Born before 220. - 197: His father Attalus I Soter suffers a stroke and makes Eumenes co-ruler; he becomes king in the same year and inherits a policy in which he presents himself as protector of Greece. He also inherits an alliance with Rome. - 194: Refuses an alliance with [Antiochus III the Great](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/ )of the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.livius.org/articles/dynasty/seleucids/ ), and instead provokes the [Syrian War](https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/syrian-war-192-188/ ), in which he is supported by Rome. - 192: Attalus II Philadelphus visits Rome and warns against Antiochus III. - 189: Battle of Magnesia: Antiochus defeated by the Romans and Pergamenes; Manlius Vulso attacks the Galatians. - 188: Peace of [Apamea](/articles/place/apamea/): Rome awards Pergamon large parts of Asia Minor, including [Ephesus](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/ephesus/ ), [Telmessus](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/telmessus-fethiye/ ), and Tralles. - 183: War against king [Prusias I the Lame](/articles/person/prusias-i-the-lame/)of Bithynia; although Eumenes is defeated, Roman support gives him in the end victory. - 183: Alliance with the towns of [Crete](/articles/place/crete/). - 182-179: War against king Pharnaces of [Pontus](/articles/place/pontus-kingdom/); territorial gains. - 175: Enables the succession of [Antiochus IV Epiphanes](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iv-epiphanes/ )in the Seleucid Empire. - 172: During a visit to Rome, Eumenes, hostile to the [Macedonian](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/macedonia/ )king [Perseus](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/perseus/ ), informs the [Senate](https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/senate/ )about Perseus' presumed plans to gain influence in Greece. - On his return, Eumenes is attacked near Cirrha, and believed to be death. His brother [Attalus](/person/attalus-ii-philadelphus/)becomes king and marries to queen [Stratonice](/person/stratonice-iv/). When Eumenes returns, Attalus cedes power; Stratonice returns to her husband - 171-168: Rome's Third Macedonian War. No Pergamene successes, and Eumenes is suspected by the Senate. After Rome's victory, the Senate refuses Eumenes' apology. - Eumenes defeats the Galatians (Pergamon Altar), whom the Romans force him to leave autonomous (166). - 159: Death; he is succeeded by his loyal brother, who remarries queen Stratonice Succeeded by: [Attalus II Philadelphus](/person/attalus-ii-philadelphus/)

Attaliede

http://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-syrian-wars/appian-the-syrian-wars-7/

Appian, The Syrian Wars 7 [Appian of Alexandria](https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/) (c.95-c.165): one of the most underestimated of all Greek historians, author of a [Roman History](/sources/content/appian/) in twenty-four books. Although only his books on the Roman Civil Wars survive in their entirety, large parts of Appian's book on the [Syrian War](https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/syrian-war-192-188/ ), or Syriaca, have also come down to us. This book deals with the war that the Romans and the [Seleucid](https://www.livius.org/articles/dynasty/seleucids/ ) king [Antiochus III the Great](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/ ) fought in 192-188, but also discusses, as an appendix, the history of the Seleucid Empire. The Syriaca is a valuable source for the history of the ancient Near East between the reign of [Alexander the Great](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/alexander-the-great/ ) and the Roman conquest. The translation was made by Horace White; notes by Jona Lendering. The battle of Magnesia (cont'd) [31] Both marched out about the last watch, just before daylight. The ordering of the troops on either side was as follows. The Roman legionaries, to the number of 10,000, formed the left wing resting on the river. Behind these were 10,000 Italian allies, and both these divisions were in files in triple line of battle. Behind the Italians came the army of [Eumenes](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/eumenes-ii-soter/) and about 3000 [Achaean](/articles/misc/achaean-league/) peltasts. Thus stood the left, while on the right wing were the Roman and Italian cavalry and those of Eumenes, not more than 3000 in all. Mingled with all these were light-armed troops and bowmen, and around Domitius himself were four troops of horse. Altogether they were about 30,000 strong. Domitius took his station on the right wing and placed the [consul](/articles/concept/consul/) in the center. He gave the command of the left wing to Eumenes. Considering his African elephants of no use, being few in number and of small size, as those of Africa usually are (and the small ones are afraid of the larger), he placed them in the rear of all. Such was the Roman line of battle. [32] The total force of [Antiochus](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/) was 70,000 and the strongest of these was the Macedonian [phalanx](https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/phalanx/) of 16,000 men, still arrayed after the fashion of [Alexander](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/alexander-the-great/) and [Philip](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/philip-ii-of-macedonia/). These were placed in the center, divided into ten sections of 1600 men each, with fifty men in the front line of each section and thirty-two deep. On the flanks of each section were twenty-two elephants.note[The Roman historian [Livy](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/livy/) says that there were two elephants added to each of Antiochus' ten divisions. This is more plausible.] The appearance of the phalanx was like that of a wall, of which the elephants were the towers. Such was the arrangement of the infantry of Antiochus. His horse were stationed on either wing, consisting of the mail-clad Galatians and the [Macedonian](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/macedonia/) corps called the agema, so named because they were picked horsemen. An equal number of these were stationed on either side of the phalanx. Besides these the right wing had certain light-armed troops, and other horsemen with silver shields, and 200 mounted archers. On the left were the Galatian bands of the Tectosagi, the Trocmi, the Tolistoboii, and certain [Cappadocians](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/cappadocia/) furnished by king [Ariarathes](https://www.livius.org/articles/person/ariarathes-iv-eusebes/), and a mingling of other tribes. There was another body of horse, mail-clad but light-armed, called the Companion cavalry. In this way Antiochus drew up his forces. He seems to have placed most reliance on his cavalry, whom he stationed in large numbers on his front. The serried phalanx, in which he should have placed most confidence, on account of its high state of discipline, was crowded together unskillfully in a narrow space. Besides the forces enumerated there was a great multitude of slingers, archers, javelin throwers, and peltasts from [Phrygia](https://www.livius.org/articles/people/phrygians/), [Lycia](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lycia/), [Pamphylia](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/pamphylia/), Pisidia, [Crete](/articles/place/crete/), Tralles, and [Cilicia](https://www.livius.org/articles/place/cilicia/), armed after the Cretan fashion. There were also other mounted archers from the [Dahae](https://www.livius.org/articles/people/dahae/), Mysia, Elymais, and [Arabia], riding on swift [dromedaries](https://www.livius.org/articles/misc/dromedaries-and-camels/), who shot arrows with dexterity from their high position, and used very long thin knives when they came to close combat. Antiochus also placed scythe-bearing chariots in the space between the armies to begin the battle, with orders to retire after the first onset. [33] The appearance of his formation was like that of two armies, one to begin the fight, the other held in reserve. Each was arranged in a way to strike terror into the enemy both by numbers and equipment. Antiochus commanded the horse on the right wing in person; his son Seleucus commanded the left. Philip, the master of the elephants, commanded the phalanx, and Mendis and Zeuxis the skirmishers. The day was dark and gloomy so that the sight of the display was obscured and the aim of the missiles of all kinds impaired by the misty and murky atmosphere. When Eumenes perceived this he disregarded the remainder of the enemy's force, and fearing only the onset of the scythe-bearing chariots, which were mostly ranged against him, he ordered the slingers, archers, and other light-armed under his command to circle around the chariots and aim at the horses, instead of the drivers, for when a horse becomes unmanageable in a chariot all the chariot becomes useless. He often breaks the ranks of his own friends, who are afraid of the scythes. So it turned out. The horses being wounded in great numbers charged with their chariots upon their own ranks. The dromedaries were thrown into disorder first, as they were next in line to the chariots, and after them the mail-clad horse who could not easily dodge the scythes on account of the weight of their armor. Great was the tumult and various the disorder started chiefly by these runaways and spreading along the whole front, the apprehension being even worse than the fact. For, as by reason of distance and multitude, discordant cries and manifold fears, the truth was not clearly grasped even by those near the danger, so these transmitted the alarm constantly magnified to those beyond. [34] Eumenes, having succeeded admirably in his first attempt and cleared the ground held by the dromedaries and chariots, led his own horse and those of the Romans and Italians in his division against the Galatians, the Cappadocians, and the other collection of mercenaries opposed to him, cheering loudly and exhorting them to have no fear of these inexperienced men who had been deprived of their advance supports. They obeyed him and made so heavy a charge that they put to flight not only those, but the adjoining squadrons and the mail-clad horse, who were already thrown into disorder by the chariots. The greater part of these, unable to turn and fly quickly, on account of the weight of their armor, were captured or killed. While this was the state of affairs on the left of the Macedonian phalanx, Antiochus, on the right, broke through the Roman line of battle, dismembered it, and pursued a long distance. [35] The Macedonian phalanx, which had been stationed between the two bodies of horse in a narrow space in the form of a square, when denuded of cavalry on either side, had opened to receive the light-armed troops, who had been skirmishing in front, and closed again. Thus crowded together, Domitius easily enclosed them with his numerous light cavalry. Having no opportunity to charge or even to deploy their dense mass, they began to suffer severely; and they were indignant that military experience availed them nothing, exposed as they were on all sides to the weapons of the enemy. Nevertheless, they presented their thick-set pikes on all four sides. They challenged the Romans to close combat and preserved at all times the appearance of being about to charge. Yet they did not advance, because they were foot-soldiers and heavily armed, and saw that the enemy were mounted. Most of all they feared to relax their close formation lest they might not readily bring it together again. The Romans did not come to close quarters nor approach them because they feared the discipline, the solidity, and the desperation of this veteran corps; but circled around them and assailed them with javelins and arrows, none of which missed their mark in the dense mass, who could neither turn the missiles aside nor dodge them. After suffering severely in this way they yielded to necessity and fell back step by step, but with a bold front, in perfect order and still formidable to the Romans. The latter kept their distance and continued to circle around and wound them, until the elephants inside the Macedonian phalanx became excited and unmanageable. Then the phalanx broke into disorderly flight.

Laurence Sterne

http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20190521-is-this-the-best-shaggy-dog-story-ever-written

The best comic novel ever written? Tristram Shandy is a rambling, anarchic cult classic that was wildly experimental for its time. It also made its author a huge celebrity, writes Thomas Graham. "Of all the several ways of beginning a book which are now in practice throughout the known world, I am confident my own way of doing it is the best – I'm sure it is the most religious – for I begin with writing the first sentence – and trusting to Almighty God for the second." So claims the narrator Tristram Shandy towards the end of his fictional autobiography, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, written by Laurence Sterne in the middle of the 18th Century. Strange, then, to remember how he did begin his story: "ab Ovo", at the very moment of conception. "I wish either my father or my mother, or indeed both of them, as they were in duty both equally bound to it, had minded what they were about when they begot me…" Alas, an interruption at the crucial moment "dispersed the animal spirits", and this, apparently, endowed Tristram with the traits that make him such a singular narrator. His creator, Laurence Sterne, was a middle-aged, Anglican parish priest in Yorkshire in the north of England. Tristram catapulted Sterne into celebrity. "The first two volumes were wildly popular," Judith Hawley, an expert on 18th-Century literature, tells BBC Culture. "So much so that the name Tristram Shandy entered popular culture. There was a lot of branded merchandise; race horses were named after him; lots of imitation novels. It became a marketing phenomenon." Sterne loved his newfound fame. "I wrote not to be fed, but to be famous," as he liked to say. By the time he died, just eight or nine years after the first volumes, he had written seven more. Such was Sterne's celebrity by then that when grave robbers stole his freshly buried body and sold it to a professor of anatomy at Cambridge, a student at the dissection table recognised Sterne's face. The body was returned to its resting place, with a partial incision into the skull. Or, at least, that's how the story goes. It would be rather neat, since "Shandy" is a Yorkshire word meaning odd – or crack-brained. More like this: Tristram Shandy had such success because it was a sensational book: not just a good yarn, but wildly experimental. It messed about with the novelistic conventions of the time, such as linearity and a structured plot, and took innovations like the self-conscious narrator to an extreme. "And Sterne integrates those things with this extraordinary narrative of these funny dysfunctional characters living out their fractured lives," says Hawley. There's Tristram, of course, who is writing the autobiography but isn't born until the third volume. His father, Walter, who adores abstruse intellectual argumentation. The gentle Uncle Toby, wounded at war and now obsessed with everything about fortifications; and Corporal Trim, Toby's manservant. Dr Slop, the local midwife, and Parson Yorick, a witty and misunderstood clergyman, complete the core characters. At least some are present for the events of Tristram's life that form one major sequence of the narrative: Tristram's mishandled conception, birth and christening, and his accidental circumcision by a falling window sash. But to describe them as a sequence belies the screwy time scheme of the book, which is by turns stretched and squashed, folded back on itself and internally disordered. The author's preface turns up in the third volume, when Tristram's mother is giving birth (to him) and the Shandy men have dozed off: "All my heroes are off my hands; – 'tis the first time I have had a moment to spare, – and I'll make use of it, and write my preface". The end, "Finis," comes at the close of the fourth. In the sixth volume, as if regretting his tendency to digress, Tristram suggests he will get on with the story from then on "in a tolerable straight line." He immediately jumps to a travelogue in France. At one point, Tristram notes it is a year since he started writing, and he's not even a day old in the book. He's falling ever further behind. Throughout, Tristram's voice is the only real sense of continuity. A precursor of the stream-of-consciousness style, it runs on the association of ideas, with an idiosyncratic use of dashes to mimic the structure of thought and conversation. The dashes cover every page, varying in length and expressivity but showing the seams between one idea and the next that chips in, usually before the first was fully formed. They give a sense of constant improvisation. But to call the voice Tristram's is a simplification. It knows things it shouldn't, and doesn't know things it should. Sterne himself comes close to the surface at times, like when he finds space in each new volume to parody the critics who'd said rude things about the last. "Sterne is playing with veracity, voice and identity," says Patrick Wildgust, curator of [Shandy Hall](https://www.laurencesternetrust.org.uk/shandy-hall.php), a museum in the Yorkshire house where Sterne wrote Tristram Shandy. "When you try to get down to the crucial point, the mist rolls in and we just don't know. And that's rather good." If the tone of the book was whimsical, Sterne was absolutely serious about its physical production. His surviving letters to publishers are exacting in their demands about paper quality, print type and lay out, and he would supervise the printing of each volume. That's because they involved some very particular visual elements, including three famous disruptions to the text. A tall tale The first appears midway through volume one, as Tristram narrates the dying moment of Parson Yorick. As the chapter ends, the facing page is simply black, a slab of ink, as is its reverse side. The second is a marbled page found in the third volume. Originally, these were marbled by hand before being stuck into each book. In modern editions, the marbled page is monochrome and uniform, robbing it of its meaning. The idea was that each reader would have a unique design in hand – that everyone was reading the same book, and yet in fact their copy was singular. And the third is a blank page, at the end of the sixth volume, when Tristram introduces Mrs Wadham, and tells the reader to get a pen and "paint her to your own mind – as like your mistress as you can – as unlike your wife as your conscience will let you – 'tis all one to me – please but your own fancy in it." "Sterne certainly made his ideas manifest," says Wildgust. "The marbled page is beautiful. The black page is unpredictable. And with the blank page he is saying that the most important thing of any book is the imagination you bring to it." On the face of it, Tristram Shandy was unprecedented. Sterne was a parish priest who had done some journalism and a bit of satire, and then, aged 46, sat down and wrote this completely unique book. But the influences are there to be found. At that time in the 18th Century, the novel did not exist in the form and prominence it does today. But several authors and their imitators had already established conventions. One was Henry Fielding, whose omniscient third-person narrator in Tom Jones is a clear precursor to that of Tristram Shandy. Two others were Samuel Richardson, with Pamela and Clarissa, and Daniel Defoe, whose book Robinson Crusoe helped introduce the tradition of the cradle-to-grave story: "I was born in the Year 1632, in the City of York…," it begins. Sterne, of course, took that idea to an absurd extreme. But he was also looking further back, imitating Don Quixote and Rabelais, as critics of the time noted. "There was a paradoxical sense of it being both innovative and imitative at the same time," says Hawley. Although the first two volumes of Tristram Shandy were rejected by Robert Dodsley, the London publisher, and had to be privately printed, they were an instant hit. The nine volumes were published over a period of seven or eight years in installments. (Sterne doesn't seem to have planned it out, as Charles Dickens later did with his serialisations. He might well have come back to Tristram for fame or food.) But not all the critics were convinced. In 1776, no less a figure than Dr Johnson proclaimed, with mirthless certainty, "Nothing odd will do long. 'Tristram Shandy' did not last." But last it did. And not just in itself, but in its influence elsewhere. "Dickens had the self-consciousness about time; Thackeray had a Doctor Slope based on Doctor Slop," says Hawley. "One of the enduring legacies into the 19th Century was the character of Uncle Toby, the sentimental, lovable hero. I think Mr Dick of David Copperfield is partly based on him… But it's in the 20th Century that you get people imitating the formal experiments much more: the craziness with time, the radical experiments with chopping up pages." And the 2005 film adaptation of the book, Tristram Shandy: A Cock and Bull Story, is similarly unconventional – with an elaborate, digressive structure, and lots of dark humour. Tristram Shandy set the stage for experimental literature. It was perhaps the first stream-of-consciousness narrative – a style later adopted by James Joyce. Sterne's exploration of what constitutes a novel, and of the relationship between author and reader had a big influence on writers like Virginia Woolf. Then the way he challenged the reader's passivity and invited moments of reflection – not least through the special pages – introduced a shot of chance and individuality to every reader's experience with the book. Perhaps that's why it still feels so avant-garde. "You can analyse something, you can create it formally, and you can turn it into an experiment with a quod erat demonstrandum at the bottom, but also it does have to have life pulsing in it somewhere, that is often reliant on chance," says Wildgust. "And that ingredient in Tristram Shandy is the one that is the most significant. The emblem of Sterne's work – the marbled page – was created by chance." If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Culture, head over to our And if you liked this story, [sign up for the weekly bbc.com features newsletter](http://pages.emails.bbc.com/subscribe/), called The Essential List. A handpicked selection of stories from BBC Future, Culture, Capital and Travel, delivered to your inbox every Friday.

Adige

https://www.britannica.com/place/Adige-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Adige-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Adige-River) Adige River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Italian: - Fiume Adige - Latin: - Athesis - German: - Etsch Adige River, longest stream of [Italy](https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy) after the [Po River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Po-River). The Adige rises in the north from two Alpine mountain lakes below [Resia Pass](https://www.britannica.com/place/Resia-Pass) and flows rapidly through the Venosta Valley south and east past [Merano](https://www.britannica.com/place/Merano-Italy) and [Bolzano](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bolzano-Italy). Having received the waters of the Isarco River at Bolzano, the Adige turns south to flow through the Trentino-Alto Adige region in its middle course, known as the Lagarina Valley. Entering the Po lowland near [Verona](https://www.britannica.com/place/Verona-Italy), it veers southeast and, after several long [meanders](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/meanders), enters the [Adriatic Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Adriatic-Sea) just south of Chioggia and north of the Po River [delta](https://www.britannica.com/science/delta-river-system-component) after a course of 255 miles (410 km). It drains a basin of 4,710 square miles (12,200 square km). In early Christian times the [river's](https://www.britannica.com/science/river) course was probably several miles farther north until, about 589 ce, the river broke through its banks and built its present course. The dikes constructed during the past several centuries have had to be raised several times; the last 50 miles (80 km) or so of the river's course are entirely man-made. The Adige supplies [hydroelectric power](https://www.britannica.com/science/hydroelectric-power) in its upper Alpine section and irrigation for the Veneto in its lower course. Floods, such as occurred in 1951 and 1966, do great damage and require constant control of the riverbank. [ Britannica Quiz Water and its Varying Forms ](/quiz/water-and-its-varying-forms) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)This article was most recently revised and updated by [Charly Rimsa](/editor/Charly-Rimsa/6444).

Tiber

https://www.britannica.com/place/Tiber-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tiber-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Tiber-River) Tiber River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Italian: - Fiume Tevere Tiber River, historic [river](https://www.britannica.com/science/river) of [Europe](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe) and the second longest Italian river (after the [Po](https://www.britannica.com/place/Po-River)), rising on the slope of Monte Fumaiolo, a major [summit](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/summit) of the [Tuscan-Emilian Apennines](https://www.britannica.com/place/Apennine-Range). The Tiber is 252 miles (405 km) long. Twisting in a generally southerly direction through a series of scenic gorges and broad valleys, it flows through the city of [Rome](https://www.britannica.com/place/Rome) and enters the [Tyrrhenian Sea](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tyrrhenian-Sea) of the Mediterranean near [Ostia Antica](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ostia). Its major tributaries are the Chiascio, Nestore, Paglia, Nera, and Aniene. Below Rome, the Tiber branches out into a [delta](https://www.britannica.com/science/delta-river-system-component), the main channel being the Fiumara, with the Fiumicino functioning as a distributary branch on the north side. Some ancient writers allege that it was known originally as Albula—a reference to the whiteness of its waters—but it was renamed Tiberis after Tiberinus, a king of [Alba Longa](https://www.britannica.com/place/Alba-Longa) (an area centred on [Lake Albano](https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Albano), south of Rome) who was drowned in it. Although the Romans made some effort to control the river's lower course, their [ignorance](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/ignorance) of hydraulic principles prevented the development of adequate protection against floods. It is only in modern times that the Tiber has flowed through Rome between high stone embankments. Though the river varies in depth between 7 and 20 feet, there is some evidence that navigation upstream to the Val Tiberina was significant for the grain trade as long ago as the 5th century bce. Later the shipment of building stone and also of timber became important. In its zenith, classical Rome was supplied with vegetables grown in the gardens of riverside villas. [ Britannica Quiz Water and its Varying Forms ](/quiz/water-and-its-varying-forms) The importance of the lower Tiber was first recognized in the 3rd century bce, when [Ostia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ostia) was made a naval base during the [Punic Wars](https://www.britannica.com/event/Punic-Wars). It later became a commercial centre for the import of Mediterranean [wheat](https://www.britannica.com/plant/wheat), oil, and [wine](https://www.britannica.com/topic/wine). Successive attempts to maintain Ostia, on the Fiumara, and the port of the emperors [Claudius](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claudius-Roman-emperor) and [Trajan](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Trajan), on the Fiumicino, were defeated by the processes of silting and by the [deposition](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deposition) of sandbars at the river mouths. In later centuries, several [popes](https://www.britannica.com/topic/pope) tried to improve navigation on the lower Tiber, and ports were built at Rome in 1692, 1703, and 1744. Navigation and trade upon the lower Tiber flourished again between the late 18th and mid-19th centuries, when further dredging took place on the lower course. Silting continued, however, with such persistence that within another century the Tiber was navigable only at Rome itself. The Tiber delta, meanwhile, had advanced about two miles seaward since Roman times. [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)This article was most recently revised and updated by [Amy Tikkanen](/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393).

Inn

https://www.britannica.com/place/Inn-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Inn-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Inn-River) Inn River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Latin: - Aenus Inn River, a major right- (south-) bank tributary of the [Danube River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Danube-River). The Inn River is 317 miles (510 km) long. It rises in Lake Lughino in [Switzerland](https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland) and flows northeast across western [Austria](https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria) and southern [Germany](https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany). The [river's](https://www.britannica.com/science/river) Swiss section is called the [Engadin](https://www.britannica.com/place/Engadin). In Austria the river first enters the narrow Oberinntal (upper Inn Valley) lying above Zirl and then the Unterinntal (lower Inn Valley), which includes [Innsbruck](https://www.britannica.com/place/Innsbruck). In the Unterinntal the river is wide, except at [Kufstein](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kufstein), where it cuts between the [Bavarian Alps](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bavarian-Alps) on the west and the Kaisergebirge on the east. Entering [Bavaria](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bavaria) in Germany, the Inn flows north and then east before receiving its major tributary, the Salzach River. A short distance downstream it forms part of the Austro-German border to its [confluence](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/confluence) with the Danube at [Passau](https://www.britannica.com/place/Passau), Germany. Agricultural areas lie along the middle and lower sections of the river, which is harnessed at points for [hydroelectric power](https://www.britannica.com/science/hydroelectric-power). [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)

William Makepeace Thackeray

https://books.google.com/books?id=klM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289&dq=%22The+Cornhill+magazine%22+editor+thackeray

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $53.59 Get this book in print Routledge Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » W.M.Thackery and the Mediated Text: Writing for Periodicals in the Mid ... By Richard Pearson About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Routledge . Copyright . Pages Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

William Makepeace Thackeray

https://books.google.com/books?id=52qADAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=Ikey+Solomons+thackeray

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Tisza

https://www.britannica.com/place/Tisza-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Tisza-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Tisza-River) Tisza River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Romanian, Russian, and Serbian: - Tisa Recent News [European elections live: Hungary poll puts Orbán's Fidesz on 50% with Magyar's Tisza on 27%](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2024/jun/07/european-elections-live-record-number-of-far-right-candidates-as-ireland-heads-to-the-polls) Tisza River, a major tributary of the middle [Danube River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Danube-River), rising in the Bukovina segment of the [Carpathian Mountains](https://www.britannica.com/place/Carpathian-Mountains). Its two headstreams, the Black and White Tisza, unite east of Sighet, [Romania](https://www.britannica.com/place/Romania), on the Ukraine-Romania border. From Sighet the Tisza flows northwest through a small portion of [Ukraine](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine) and then into [Hungary](https://www.britannica.com/place/Hungary). It then flows in a great northward loop to where the Slovak, Ukrainian, and Hungarian frontiers [converge](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/converge) near Chop, Ukraine. The Tisza continues southwest through Hungary to Szolnok; then it cuts southward across the [Great Alfold](https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Alfold), paralleling the Danube, which it joins 28 miles (45 km) north of [Belgrade](https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgrade), [Serbia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Serbia), after a meandering course (largely canalized) of 600 miles (966 km). Its drainage area is 60,690 square miles (157,186 square km). The Tisza in its mountain course is a clear rapid stream. The lack of an extensive lake system in the Carpathians to steady the seasonal runoff explains the spectacular contrast between its maximum and minimum levels and results in three annual floods—in early spring, early summer, and fall. When high water in the Tisza meets similar conditions in the Danube, the Tisza flows back into its own course, causing severe flooding. Such a coincidence destroyed [Szeged](https://www.britannica.com/place/Szeged), Hungary, in the spring of 1879; dikes were subsequently built to protect the city. Regulation of the [river](https://www.britannica.com/science/river) was begun in the second half of the 19th century, and there are 2,400 miles (3,860 km) of flood-control levees along its course. The main east-bank tributaries are the Szamos, Körös, and Maros (Romanian Someș, Criș, Mureș); on the west bank are the Bodrog and the Sajó. The Tiszalök Dam (1954) on the river's upper course forms the largest reservoir in Hungary, provides [hydroelectric power](https://www.britannica.com/science/hydroelectric-power), and, with the Eastern Main Canal linking the Tisza and the Berettyö to the Körös, supplies year-round irrigation water to the Hajdúság and Hortobágy plains. The Tisza is navigable for river boats for about 200 miles (320 km) up to [Szolnok](https://www.britannica.com/place/Szolnok), and for smaller craft almost to the Hungary-Slovakia border. Szolnok, Csongrád, and Szeged rank as river ports. A canal in Serbia links the Tisza with the Danube before their natural [confluence](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/confluence). [ Britannica Quiz Water and its Varying Forms ](/quiz/water-and-its-varying-forms) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)This article was most recently revised and updated by [Amy Tikkanen](/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393).

Drava

https://www.britannica.com/place/Drava-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Drava-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Drava-River) Drava River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - German: - Drau Drava River, a major right-bank tributary of the [Danube River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Danube-River), in south-central [Europe](https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe). It rises in the [Carnic Alps](https://www.britannica.com/place/Carnic-Alps) near Dobbiaco (Toblach), [Italy](https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy), and flows eastward through the Austrian Bundesländer (federal states) of Tirol and [Kärnten](https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnten), where it forms the Drautal, the longest [longitudinal](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/longitudinal) valley of the Alps. From there it flows southeastward through [Slovenia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Slovenia). Near Legrad, [Croatia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Croatia), it is joined by the Mura (Mur) River and forms part of the Croatian-Hungarian border. The originally swift course of the Drava has been harnessed by [hydroelectric power](https://www.britannica.com/science/hydroelectric-power) plants in [Austria](https://www.britannica.com/place/Austria), Slovenia, and Croatia. It is navigable only by small boats in its upper reaches and by larger craft downstream from Donji Miholjac, Croatia. The Drava valley was the chief passage through which invaders from the east, such as the Huns and Slavs, penetrated the Alpine countries. The main towns of the Drava and its [affluents](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/affluents) are Klagenfurt and Graz in Austria, [Maribor](https://www.britannica.com/place/Maribor) and Ptuj in Slovenia, and Varaždin and [Osijek](https://www.britannica.com/place/Osijek) in Croatia. [ Britannica Quiz Water and its Varying Forms ](/quiz/water-and-its-varying-forms) [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)

Sava

https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286

[Folia onomastica Croatica](https://hrcak.srce.hr/folia-onomastica), [ No. 12/13](https://hrcak.srce.hr/broj/2034), 2003. Izvorni znanstveni članak Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save Jürgen Udolph ; Abteilung Deutsch-Slavische Namenforschung, Leipzig, Deutschland Puni tekst: [njemački pdf 258 Kb](https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/36682) str. 523-548 preuzimanja: 2.180 APA 6th Edition Udolph, J. (2003). Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save. Folia onomastica Croatica, (12/13), 523-548. Preuzeto s https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286 MLA 8th Edition Udolph, Jürgen. "Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save." Folia onomastica Croatica, vol. , br. 12/13, 2003, str. 523-548. https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286. Citirano 02.07.2024. Chicago 17th Edition Udolph, Jürgen. "Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save." Folia onomastica Croatica , br. 12/13 (2003): 523-548. https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286 Harvard Udolph, J. (2003). 'Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save', Folia onomastica Croatica, (12/13), str. 523-548. Preuzeto s: https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286 (Datum pristupa: 02.07.2024.) Vancouver Udolph J. Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save. Folia onomastica Croatica [Internet]. 2003 [pristupljeno 02.07.2024.];(12/13):523-548. Dostupno na: https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286 IEEE J. Udolph, "Alteuropa in Kroatien: der Name der Sava/Save", Folia onomastica Croatica, vol., br. 12/13, str. 523-548, 2003. [Online]. Dostupno na: https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286. [Citirano: 02.07.2024.] Sažetak Die Etymologie des Namens der Sava, dt. Save, Sau, muß – wie immer bei geo graphischen Namen – auf einer sorgfältigen Zusammenstellung der historischen Belege basieren. Dabei ergibt sich, daß die ältesten Formen Savus und ähnliches enthalten, während der heutige Name ein Femininum Sava, Save ist. Schon früh ist der Name einer alten Sprachschicht zugeordnet worden und mit der indoeuropäischen Wurzel *seu- "Feuchtes, Saft", zum Beispiel in althochdeutsch sou 'Saft', griech. oeù aus *sū-‰ō, alb. shī aus *siu-, 'regnen' verbunden worden. Die gelegentlich angenommene Herkunft aus dem Illyrischen oder Venetischen wird heute nicht mehr vertreten. Ključne riječi [onomastics](https://hrcak.srce.hr/pretraga?type=napredna&field[]=article_keywords&term[]=%22onomastics%22); [ Old-European hydronymy](https://hrcak.srce.hr/pretraga?type=napredna&field[]=article_keywords&term[]=%22+Old-European+hydronymy%22); [ place names](https://hrcak.srce.hr/pretraga?type=napredna&field[]=article_keywords&term[]=%22+place+names%22); [ etymology](https://hrcak.srce.hr/pretraga?type=napredna&field[]=article_keywords&term[]=%22+etymology%22) Hrčak ID: 23286 URI [https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286](https://hrcak.srce.hr/23286) Datum izdavanja: 28.3.2007.

Sava

https://www.britannica.com/place/Sava-River

[References & Edit History](https://www.britannica.com/place/Sava-River/additional-info) [Related Topics](/facts/Sava-River) Sava River Our editors will review what you've submitted and determine whether to revise the article. - Also spelled: - Save - German: - Sau - Hungarian: - Száva Sava River, [river](https://www.britannica.com/science/river) in the western [Balkans](https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans). Its [basin](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/basin), 36,960 square miles (95,720 square km) in area, covers much of [Slovenia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Slovenia), [Croatia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Croatia), [Bosnia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina), and northern [Serbia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Serbia). It rises in the [Triglav](https://www.britannica.com/place/Triglav) group of the [Julian Alps](https://www.britannica.com/place/Julian-Alps) as two rivers, the Sava Bohinjka and the Sava Dolinka, which join at Radovljica. It then flows mainly east-southeastward through Slovenia, just north of [Ljubljana](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ljubljana), through Croatia touching Zagreb, and then forms the border between Croatia and Bosnia before entering Serbia and joining the [Danube River](https://www.britannica.com/place/Danube-River) at [Belgrade](https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgrade) after a course of 584 miles (940 km). The Sava River is navigable upstream to Sisak, 362 miles (583 km) from the Danube, for small freight vessels. Its tributaries are the Savinja, Krka, Kupa, Lonja, Una, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina, and Kolubara rivers. Major towns along the river are Kranj, [Zagreb](https://www.britannica.com/place/Zagreb), Sisak, Slavonski Brod, Bosanski Šamac, Sremska Mitrovica, and Šabac. [The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica](/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419)This article was most recently revised and updated by [Michael Ray](/editor/Michael-Ray/6392).

Kurt Vonnegut

https://www.bookbrowse.com/authors/author_pronunciations/detail/index.cfm/author_number/386/kurt-vonnegut

The pronunciation of this author's name has been verified by the publisher. If you are the author, or personally familiar with the author, and disagree, please [tell us](/contactus). [More pronunciations](/authors/author_pronunciations/) Join our inner reading circle, go ad-free and get way more! The Bluestockings by Susannah Gibson An illuminating group portrait of the eighteenth-century women who dared to imagine an active life for themselves in both mind and spirit. Solve this clue: and be entered to win.. Your guide toexceptional books BookBrowse seeks out and recommends the best in contemporary fiction and nonfiction—books that not only engage and entertain but also deepen our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

Paul Stewart (pianis)

http://www.scena.org/lsm/sm13-6/medtner-en.html

Laurence Kayaleh & Paul Stewart - The Sound of Medtnerby [Wah Keung Chan](http://www.scena.org/authordesc.asp?id=4) / March 2, 2008 [Version française...](medtner-fr.html) It all started with a casual conversation on a subway platform following a rehearsal in 2002. "Have you ever heard of Nikolay Medtner?" Canadian pianist Paul Stewart asked Laurence Kayaleh. Stewart, who had been searching for the right violinist to play the Medtner violin sonatas for some time, lovingly took out the well-worn photocopies of the sonatas and offered them to the Swiss-born violinist to take home. "I was immediately thunderstruck and I became addicted to them," exclaimed Kayaleh. This brief exchange has blossomed into a collaboration that has now culminated in the release of a two-CD set of Medtner's complete violin and piano works on the Naxos label. Who is Nikolay Medtner? For Stewart, discovering Nikolay Medtner had practically become an obsession after encountering the composer's works as a student in London. "My teacher had known Medtner and he let me see some scores," Stewart explains. Tracking down the printed music has been a journey through the years taking him from England to India to New York. The trouble was that although the composer's complete works were published in the 1960s in Russia, few libraries had all 12 volumes, and only recently have there been recordings available. Most musicians and music fans would be hard-pressed to identify the name Nikolay Medtner (b. Jan. 5, 1880 d. Nov. 13, 1951), who was a younger contemporary of Rachmaninoff and Scriabin. Born in Moscow and the youngest of five children, Medtner studied piano with his mother until age ten, when he entered the Moscow Conservatory, from which he graduated in 1900. Besides piano technique, Medtner studied composition from Sergei Taneyev. "Medtner's skill as a piano virtuoso was considered second only to Rachmaninoff's and he was known for being a specialist in the Beethoven Fourth Piano Concerto and the Appassionata sonata, but he only played his own music," Stewart said. To the consternation of his family, Medtner soon turned exclusively to composing. Medtner's musical language was based on the Romantic era. "He was called the Russian Brahms and his style really was formed by the time he was 20," Stewart said. Medtner had a series of successful compositions for piano in the first 10 years of composing. "Rachmaninoff considered him the greatest composer of their time and dedicated his Fourth Piano Concerto to him. What makes him so unknown today was simply bad timing." When the Russian Revolution broke out in October 1917, Rachmaninoff left early but Medtner stayed. For many years, Medtner had been in love with Anna Mikhaylovna Bratenskaya, a violinist and the young wife of his older brother Emil. With Emil's blessing, Medtner waited until his parents had died and his brother had divorced before marrying Anna in 1918. "Medtner was a man of high principles and morals," said Stewart. "There would not have been any sexual liaison between Medtner and Anna before their marriage." The couple was able to leave Russia only in 1921 and with the exception of a tour in 1927, was never to return. Unfortunately, musical tastes had turned away from the Romantic era by then, and Medtner was considered to be from the old school. Although Rachmaninoff secured a tour of North America in 1924 for Medtner, who played his own works exclusively, Medtner never took to touring and giving concerts; he eventually settled in London to a life of teaching, playing and composing. He was very outspoken against modern music and in 1935 published the treatise The Muse and The Fashion, a defence of the foundation of the Art of Music. "He couldn't bear Richard Strauss and he criticized people too often," said Stewart. "When the Second World War came, his music was forgotten." His German publishers disappeared and not only did his income dry up, but his music was no longer available. Medtner's fortunes seemed to pick up following the difficult war years when, in 1946, the Maharaja of Mysore (southern India) became a patron to Medtner. In 1949, the Maharaja founded a Medtner Society in London to record all of Medtner's works. Despite his failing health, Medtner recorded his three piano concertos, as well as his sonatas, chamber music, numerous songs and shorter works. "The bad luck was that the recordings were issued in 78s and by the 1950s the 78 was on its way out and those recordings became difficult to find," said Stewart. The composer died in London in 1951 and is buried with his brother Emil in Hendon. Anna returned to Russia with all his manuscripts and scores, and the completed works which are still hard to find were published in Russia in the 1960s. Paul Stewart Medtner's works are in the grand old tradition. According to some sources, he considered himself a descendant of Beethoven. For Medtner, sound is essential to his compositions. For Paul Stewart, sound has always been primary to his piano playing. Growing up in Nova Scotia with a father who sang and conducted a choir, Stewart started playing the piano at age 5. The intrepid young pianist accompanied his father and the choir and also played the organ. He then studied at McGill under Hungarian professor Charles Reiner. "I had an old-school training, where sound and tone production were the optimum aspiration for a pianist, not so much fast playing," said Stewart. "From Charles, it was always sound and sound. It's a matter of learning to play the instrument the way it was constructed. It's important to know how a string vibrates. You have to learn how to manipulate the speed at which the hammer hits the string because that's the secret. If the string doesn't vibrate with the overtones, the sound is going to be harsh or at best uninteresting. There is a lot more to playing piano, of course, but nothing works unless it is musical." From McGill, Stewart went on to more studies in the European tradition, with Kendall Taylor in London and Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli in Italy. "I was lucky to have heard Horowitz and Rubinstein live," said Stewart. "Medtner is extremely rich music, and it needs an artist who understands sound. I'm lucky to find this in Laurence Kayaleh." Laurence Kayaleh For the 33-year-old Kayaleh, the daughter of musicians (her mother is a pianist and her father a violinist) who run the Kayaleh Violin Academy in Switzerland, the individual characteristics of great violinists such as David Oistrakh and Yehudi Menuhin have always fascinated her. "I always try to have a speaking sound that is telling something, saying something particular, what I feel and what I want to express in the music," Kayaleh said. "Sound is a great language for the moods. I try to have as many colours as possible. My aim is always to have a beautiful sound. You give the character of the piece, but always with a very well rounded sound." What is the secret of making a nice sound on the violin? "You have to have a lot of horizontality in the bow, which will give a lot of natural vibrations in the string. If you put more pressure, the vibration of the string is actually less. The left hand is vibrato. Be very precise in the intonation so that you can get all the harmonics of the notes. It's many hours of work, even without vibrato to get the feel the bow. Work quick passages slowly. Play fast with the impression of calm. You feel every note and the sound will develop." Kayaleh had known Medtner as a great piano composer, and was very happy to have discovered the violin pieces. "I am interested in beautiful works that are not often played," she said. On playing Medtner Discussing Medtner with both Stewart and Kayaleh is much like hearing a Medtner violin sonata: both voices are equal and support each other. "Sometimes I'm the soloist and other times, I'm the accompanist," said Kayaleh. "Medtner had a natural gift for structure; he was born with the sonata form," said Stewart. "His compositions are so polyphonic and contrapuntal. It's so dense with melodic material. He has unusual control over melodic material which develop and fit on top of each other. You discover that the second theme is the first theme upside down." Stewart tells us that Medtner is quite the intellectual composer. "He composed like a jewelrymaker; every single note had a purpose or destiny." Medtner's scores are full of indications which Stewart calls the script. "Every word on atmosphere has a purpose," said Stewart. "Initially, the bow markings didn't make sense but as I played the piece more, it was so logical," said Kayaleh. "Sometimes, you wonder why a legato line is marked to be played with only a thumb," said Stewart. "I tried it and it's the only way to do it. Liszt also did that." Stewart relates how he used Medtner's recordings to help guide the interpretation. "Medtner was always on the metronome markings and he always kept to the pulse. Following his markings gives you more freedom." Kayaleh continues, "There's freedom between the beats. There is real tempo rubato. For Chopin, it's the same." What should the public be listening for? "You have to keep an open mind and put in some effort," said Stewart. "Listen to the tempo, and prepare to be transported by the music," said Kayaleh. "The denseness makes it complicated, but Medtner is extremely melodic," continued Stewart. "It'll grab you the second or third time. Treasures have to be dug for." n Naxos will be releasing the second volume (cat. no. 8.570299) of Laurence Kayaleh and Paul Stewart's version of the Medtner works for violin and piano on March 25, 2008. This CD includes Medtner's Violin Sonata # 1 and #2. The first volume was released in December 2007 and contained the Violin Sonata # 3. [www.naxos.com](http://www.naxos.com) [Version française...](medtner-fr.html)

Paul Stewart (pianis)

http://www.scena.org/lsm/sm13-6/medtner-en.html

Laurence Kayaleh & Paul Stewart - The Sound of Medtnerby [Wah Keung Chan](http://www.scena.org/authordesc.asp?id=4) / March 2, 2008 [Version française...](medtner-fr.html) It all started with a casual conversation on a subway platform following a rehearsal in 2002. "Have you ever heard of Nikolay Medtner?" Canadian pianist Paul Stewart asked Laurence Kayaleh. Stewart, who had been searching for the right violinist to play the Medtner violin sonatas for some time, lovingly took out the well-worn photocopies of the sonatas and offered them to the Swiss-born violinist to take home. "I was immediately thunderstruck and I became addicted to them," exclaimed Kayaleh. This brief exchange has blossomed into a collaboration that has now culminated in the release of a two-CD set of Medtner's complete violin and piano works on the Naxos label. Who is Nikolay Medtner? For Stewart, discovering Nikolay Medtner had practically become an obsession after encountering the composer's works as a student in London. "My teacher had known Medtner and he let me see some scores," Stewart explains. Tracking down the printed music has been a journey through the years taking him from England to India to New York. The trouble was that although the composer's complete works were published in the 1960s in Russia, few libraries had all 12 volumes, and only recently have there been recordings available. Most musicians and music fans would be hard-pressed to identify the name Nikolay Medtner (b. Jan. 5, 1880 d. Nov. 13, 1951), who was a younger contemporary of Rachmaninoff and Scriabin. Born in Moscow and the youngest of five children, Medtner studied piano with his mother until age ten, when he entered the Moscow Conservatory, from which he graduated in 1900. Besides piano technique, Medtner studied composition from Sergei Taneyev. "Medtner's skill as a piano virtuoso was considered second only to Rachmaninoff's and he was known for being a specialist in the Beethoven Fourth Piano Concerto and the Appassionata sonata, but he only played his own music," Stewart said. To the consternation of his family, Medtner soon turned exclusively to composing. Medtner's musical language was based on the Romantic era. "He was called the Russian Brahms and his style really was formed by the time he was 20," Stewart said. Medtner had a series of successful compositions for piano in the first 10 years of composing. "Rachmaninoff considered him the greatest composer of their time and dedicated his Fourth Piano Concerto to him. What makes him so unknown today was simply bad timing." When the Russian Revolution broke out in October 1917, Rachmaninoff left early but Medtner stayed. For many years, Medtner had been in love with Anna Mikhaylovna Bratenskaya, a violinist and the young wife of his older brother Emil. With Emil's blessing, Medtner waited until his parents had died and his brother had divorced before marrying Anna in 1918. "Medtner was a man of high principles and morals," said Stewart. "There would not have been any sexual liaison between Medtner and Anna before their marriage." The couple was able to leave Russia only in 1921 and with the exception of a tour in 1927, was never to return. Unfortunately, musical tastes had turned away from the Romantic era by then, and Medtner was considered to be from the old school. Although Rachmaninoff secured a tour of North America in 1924 for Medtner, who played his own works exclusively, Medtner never took to touring and giving concerts; he eventually settled in London to a life of teaching, playing and composing. He was very outspoken against modern music and in 1935 published the treatise The Muse and The Fashion, a defence of the foundation of the Art of Music. "He couldn't bear Richard Strauss and he criticized people too often," said Stewart. "When the Second World War came, his music was forgotten." His German publishers disappeared and not only did his income dry up, but his music was no longer available. Medtner's fortunes seemed to pick up following the difficult war years when, in 1946, the Maharaja of Mysore (southern India) became a patron to Medtner. In 1949, the Maharaja founded a Medtner Society in London to record all of Medtner's works. Despite his failing health, Medtner recorded his three piano concertos, as well as his sonatas, chamber music, numerous songs and shorter works. "The bad luck was that the recordings were issued in 78s and by the 1950s the 78 was on its way out and those recordings became difficult to find," said Stewart. The composer died in London in 1951 and is buried with his brother Emil in Hendon. Anna returned to Russia with all his manuscripts and scores, and the completed works which are still hard to find were published in Russia in the 1960s. Paul Stewart Medtner's works are in the grand old tradition. According to some sources, he considered himself a descendant of Beethoven. For Medtner, sound is essential to his compositions. For Paul Stewart, sound has always been primary to his piano playing. Growing up in Nova Scotia with a father who sang and conducted a choir, Stewart started playing the piano at age 5. The intrepid young pianist accompanied his father and the choir and also played the organ. He then studied at McGill under Hungarian professor Charles Reiner. "I had an old-school training, where sound and tone production were the optimum aspiration for a pianist, not so much fast playing," said Stewart. "From Charles, it was always sound and sound. It's a matter of learning to play the instrument the way it was constructed. It's important to know how a string vibrates. You have to learn how to manipulate the speed at which the hammer hits the string because that's the secret. If the string doesn't vibrate with the overtones, the sound is going to be harsh or at best uninteresting. There is a lot more to playing piano, of course, but nothing works unless it is musical." From McGill, Stewart went on to more studies in the European tradition, with Kendall Taylor in London and Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli in Italy. "I was lucky to have heard Horowitz and Rubinstein live," said Stewart. "Medtner is extremely rich music, and it needs an artist who understands sound. I'm lucky to find this in Laurence Kayaleh." Laurence Kayaleh For the 33-year-old Kayaleh, the daughter of musicians (her mother is a pianist and her father a violinist) who run the Kayaleh Violin Academy in Switzerland, the individual characteristics of great violinists such as David Oistrakh and Yehudi Menuhin have always fascinated her. "I always try to have a speaking sound that is telling something, saying something particular, what I feel and what I want to express in the music," Kayaleh said. "Sound is a great language for the moods. I try to have as many colours as possible. My aim is always to have a beautiful sound. You give the character of the piece, but always with a very well rounded sound." What is the secret of making a nice sound on the violin? "You have to have a lot of horizontality in the bow, which will give a lot of natural vibrations in the string. If you put more pressure, the vibration of the string is actually less. The left hand is vibrato. Be very precise in the intonation so that you can get all the harmonics of the notes. It's many hours of work, even without vibrato to get the feel the bow. Work quick passages slowly. Play fast with the impression of calm. You feel every note and the sound will develop." Kayaleh had known Medtner as a great piano composer, and was very happy to have discovered the violin pieces. "I am interested in beautiful works that are not often played," she said. On playing Medtner Discussing Medtner with both Stewart and Kayaleh is much like hearing a Medtner violin sonata: both voices are equal and support each other. "Sometimes I'm the soloist and other times, I'm the accompanist," said Kayaleh. "Medtner had a natural gift for structure; he was born with the sonata form," said Stewart. "His compositions are so polyphonic and contrapuntal. It's so dense with melodic material. He has unusual control over melodic material which develop and fit on top of each other. You discover that the second theme is the first theme upside down." Stewart tells us that Medtner is quite the intellectual composer. "He composed like a jewelrymaker; every single note had a purpose or destiny." Medtner's scores are full of indications which Stewart calls the script. "Every word on atmosphere has a purpose," said Stewart. "Initially, the bow markings didn't make sense but as I played the piece more, it was so logical," said Kayaleh. "Sometimes, you wonder why a legato line is marked to be played with only a thumb," said Stewart. "I tried it and it's the only way to do it. Liszt also did that." Stewart relates how he used Medtner's recordings to help guide the interpretation. "Medtner was always on the metronome markings and he always kept to the pulse. Following his markings gives you more freedom." Kayaleh continues, "There's freedom between the beats. There is real tempo rubato. For Chopin, it's the same." What should the public be listening for? "You have to keep an open mind and put in some effort," said Stewart. "Listen to the tempo, and prepare to be transported by the music," said Kayaleh. "The denseness makes it complicated, but Medtner is extremely melodic," continued Stewart. "It'll grab you the second or third time. Treasures have to be dug for." n Naxos will be releasing the second volume (cat. no. 8.570299) of Laurence Kayaleh and Paul Stewart's version of the Medtner works for violin and piano on March 25, 2008. This CD includes Medtner's Violin Sonata # 1 and #2. The first volume was released in December 2007 and contained the Violin Sonata # 3. [www.naxos.com](http://www.naxos.com) [Version française...](medtner-fr.html)

Slaughterhouse-Five

http://www.randomhouse.com/modernlibrary/100bestnovels.html

[The Modern Library Torchbearers](https://www.randomhousebooks.com/subpage/modern-library-torchbearers/) [The RSC William Shakespeare Complete Works](https://www.randomhousebooks.com/subpage/modern-library-rsc-william-shakespeare-complete-works/) [The Modern Library Top 100 Books](https://sites.prh.com/modern-library-top-100?ref=PRHDCE40587313D&aid=34011&linkid=PRHDCE40587313D) [Connect](#connect) The Modern Library The Modern Library was founded in 1917 by the publisher Boni and Liveright to provide American readers with inexpensive reprints of European modernist titles plus the work of a few contemporary Americans. In 1925, Horace Liveright sold the Modern Library to one of his employees, Bennett Cerf, a twenty-seven-year-old vice-president who wanted to go into business for himself and would next found Random House, Inc. The Modern Library continues to feature treasured classics, volumes of essential writings, major translations of great works from around the globe, and rediscoveries of keen literary and historical merit. Today, The Modern Library seeks to honor writers whose work broke new ground and challenged the status quo. We hope to remind readers that today's classics are often the works of yesterday's avant-garde; and that what we call the literary canon is an ever-fluid collection of great books—books that gain their significance from readers engaging with their themes across the centuries.

Slaughterhouse-Five

https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/09/28/lifetimes/vonnegut-slaughterhouse.html

| | March 31, 1969Books of The Times At Last, Kurt Vonnegut's Famous Dresden Book SLAUGHTERHOUSE-FIVE OR THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE By Kurt Vonnegut Jr. urt Vonnegut Jr., an indescribable writer whose seven previous books are like nothing else on earth, was accorded the dubious pleasure of witnessing a 20th-century apocalypse. During World War II, at the age of 23, he was captured by the Germans and imprisoned beneath the city of Dresden, "the Florence of the Elbe." He was there on Feb. 13, 1945, when the Allies firebombed Dresden in a massive air attack that killed 130,000 people and destroyed a landmark of no military significance. Next to being born, getting married and having children, it is probably the most important thing that ever happened to him. And, as he writes in the introduction to "Slaughterhouse-Five," he's been trying to write a book about Dresden ever since. Now, at last, he's finished the "famous Dresden book." In the same introduction, which should be read aloud to children, cadets and basic trainees, Mr. Vonnegut pronounces his book a failure "because there is nothing intelligent to say about a massacre." He's wrong and he knows it. Kurt Vonnegut knows all the tricks of the writing game. So he has not even tried to describe the bombing. Instead he has written around it in a highly imaginative, often funny, nearly psychedelic story. The story is sandwiched between an autobiographical introduction and epilogue. Fact and Fiction Combined The odd combination of fact and fiction forces a question upon the reader: how did the youth who lived through the Dresden bombing grow up to be the man who wrote this book? One reads "Slaughterhouse-Five" with that question crouched on the brink of one's awareness. I'm not sure if there's an answer, but the question certainly heightens the book's effects. Here is the story: Billy Pilgrim, "tall and weak, and shaped like a bottle of Coca-Cola," was born in Ilium, N.Y., the only child of a barber there. After graduating from Ilium High School, he attended night sessions at the Ilium School of Optometry for one semester before being drafted for military service in World War II. He served with the infantry in Europe, and was taken prisoner by the Germans. He was in Dresden when it was firebombed. After the war, he went back to Ilium and became a wealthy optometrist married to a huge wife named Valencia. They had two children, a daughter named Barbara who married an optometrist, and a son named Robert who became a Green Beret in Vietnam. In 1968, Billy was the sole survivor of a plane crash on top of Sugarbush Mountain in Vermont. While he was recovering in the hospital, Valencia was killed in a carbon- monoxide accident. On Feb. 13, 1976, Billy was assassinated by a nut with a high- powered laser gun. As you can see, there is much absurd violence in this story. But it is always scaled down to the size of Billy Pilgrim's world, which makes it more unbearable and more obligatory for the reader to understand the author's explanation for it. As I said, Mr. Vonnegut knows all the tricks. Now there are two things I haven't yet told you about Billy Pilgrim, and I'm hesitant to do so, because when I tell you what they are you'll want to put Kurt Vonnegut back in the science-fiction category he's been trying to climb out of, and you'll be wrong. First, Billy is "unstuck in time" and "has no control over where he is going next." "He is in a constant state of stage fright...because he never knows what part of his life he is going to have to act in next." Story Told Fluidly This problem of Billy's enables Mr. Vonnegut to tell his story fluidly, jumping forward and backward in time, free from the strictures of chronology. And this problem of Billy's is related to the second thing, which is that Billy says that on his daughter's wedding night he was kidnapped by a flying saucer from the planet Tralfamadore, flown there through a time warp, and exhibited with a movie star named Montana Wildhack. The Tralfamadorians are two feet high, green, and shaped like plumber's friends, with suctions caps on the ground and little green hands with eyes on their palms at the top of their shafts. They are wise, and they teach Billy Pilgrim many things. They teach him that humans cannot see time, which is really like "a stretch of the rocky Mountains, " with all moments in the past, the present and the future, always existing. "The Tralfamadorians...can see how permanent all the moments are, and they can look at any moment that interests them." They teach Billy that death is just an unpleasant moment. Because Billy can go back and forth in time, he knew this lesson when he was in Dresden. In 1976, when he was assassinated, Billy Pilgrim was trying to bring this message to the world. He knew he would die, but he did not mind. "Farewell, hello, farewell, hello," he said. I now, I know (as Kurt Vonnegut used to say when people told him that the Germans attacked first). It sounds crazy. It sounds like a fantastic last-ditch effort to make sense of a lunatic universe. But there is so much more to this book. It is very tough and very funny; it is sad and delightful; and it works. But is also very Vonnegut, which mean you'll either love it, or push it back in the science-fiction corner. [Return to the Books Home Page] | |

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ

| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) 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[culture](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=culture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [documents](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=documents&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eastern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Eastern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Edited](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Edited&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Figure](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Figure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalhu](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Kalhu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [late](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=late&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lists](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=lists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Michel](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Michel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [scholars](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=scholars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seals](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [side](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=side&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [statues](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=statues&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=yMhQDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Dynasty+of+E%22&pg=PA12

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Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ

| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Akkadian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Akkadian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [apparently](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=apparently&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Archives](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Archives&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ashur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assurbanipal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assurbanipal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian king](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylonian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylonian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [central](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=central&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century BCE](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century+BCE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [continued](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=continued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [court](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=court&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [culture](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=culture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [documents](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=documents&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eastern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Eastern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Edited](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Edited&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Figure](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Figure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalhu](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Kalhu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [late](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=late&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lists](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=lists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Michel](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Michel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) 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[Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/15464/2016_Tracy_Davenport_thesis.pdf?sequence=2

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Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ

| | The Imperialisation of Assyria: An Archaeological Approach The Assyrian Empire was the first state to achieve durable domination of the Ancient Near East, enduring some seven centuries and, eventually, controlling most of the region. Yet, we know little about how this empire emerged from a relatively minor polity in the Tigris region and how it managed to consolidate its power over conquered territories. Textual sources, often biased, provide a relatively limited source of information. In this study, Bleda S. Düring examines the rich archaeological data of the early Assyrian Empire that have been obtained over the past decades, together with the textual evidence. The archaeological data enable us to reconstruct the remarkably heterogeneous and dynamic impact of the Assyrian Empire on dominated territories. They also facilitate the reconstruction of the various ways in which people participated in this empire, and what might have motivated them to do so. Finally, Düring's study shows how imperial repertoires first developed in the Middle Assyrian period were central to the success of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Selected pages Contents Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1108478743&id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ) No preview available - 2020 Common terms and phrases [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [agricultural](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=agricultural&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient Near East](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient+Near+East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [appears](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=appears&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [archaeological](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=archaeological&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [argued](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=argued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian Empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+Empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Balikh](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Balikh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [burial](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=burial&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [centres](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=centres&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ceramics](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=ceramics&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [changes](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=changes&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [clear](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=clear&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [clearly](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=clearly&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [conquered](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=conquered&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [consists](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=consists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [construction](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=construction&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [continued](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=continued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [created](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=created&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cultural](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=cultural&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [dating](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=dating&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [discussed](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=discussed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [distinct](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=distinct&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [dominated](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=dominated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [dunnu](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=dunnu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Düring](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=D%C3%BCring&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [economic](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=economic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [effectively](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=effectively&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [elites](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=elites&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [estates](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=estates&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [existed](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=existed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [expansion](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=expansion&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [further](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=further&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Hittite](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Hittite&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [houses](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=houses&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [idea](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=idea&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [imperial](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=imperial&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [imperial repertoires](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=imperial+repertoires&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [investment](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=investment&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Jakob](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Jakob&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Khabur](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Khabur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [king](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kühne](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=K%C3%BChne&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [landscapes](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=landscapes&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Late Bronze Age](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Late+Bronze+Age&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [less](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=less&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [located](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=located&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian period](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian+period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mittani](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Mittani&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo-Assyrian period](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo-Assyrian+period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [occur](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=occur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [particular](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=particular&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [population](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=population&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [possible](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=possible&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Postgate](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Postgate&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [practices](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=practices&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [production](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=production&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [recent](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=recent&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [relatively](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=relatively&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remarkable](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=remarkable&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rule](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=rule&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [similar](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=similar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [situation](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=situation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [societies](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=societies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [success](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=success&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [suggest](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=suggest&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [survey](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=survey&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell Sabi Abyad](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell+Sabi+Abyad&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tenu](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Tenu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [territories](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=territories&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [textual](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=textual&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [traditions](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=traditions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [transformation](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=transformation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [transport](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=transport&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [triangle](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=triangle&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [types](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=types&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Upper](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Upper&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [various](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=various&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Wiggermann](https://books.google.com/books?id=1NLKDwAAQBAJ&q=Wiggermann&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ

| | Tiglath-pileser III, Founder of the Assyrian Empire Most modern historians consider Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria, to be the true founder of the Assyrian Empire. In Josette Elayi's latest work, she takes up this issue in her biography and history of his reign (745-727 BCE). Elayi explores questions surrounding how Tiglath-pileser managed to expand the Assyrian Empire after a period of weakness, what effects Assyrian domination had on Israel and Judah, and how the two kingdoms' fates differed. Using archaeological and textual remains from the period, she completes her trilogy of biographies, which includes Tiglath-pileser's successors, son Sargon II and grandson Sennacherib, who later led the Assyrian Empire to its greatest heights. Elayi provides yet another essential resource for scholars and students of Assyrian history and the Hebrew Bible. Selected pages Contents |1| The Kingdom of Assyria in 745 BCE |11| Was Tiglathpileser III a Usurper? |25| Tiglathpileser IIIs Ascent to the Throne |43| The Neutralization of High Dignitaries |49| The Strategy of Conquest |61| The First Phase of the Campaigns 745744 |71| The Second Phase of the Campaigns 743738 |97| The Fifth Phase of the Campaigns 731727 |153| The King is Dead Long Live the King |165| Building Activities |173| Conclusion |183| Selected Bibliography |189| |199| |201| |207|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1628374306&id=wap5EAAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [According](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=According&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Adad-nârârî](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Adad-n%C3%A2r%C3%A2r%C3%AE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [annals](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=annals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [annexed](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=annexed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Arabs](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Arabs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Aramean](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Aramean&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [army](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=army&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Arpad](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Arpad&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashur-nârârî](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Ashur-n%C3%A2r%C3%A2r%C3%AE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian Empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+Empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian king](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylon](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Babylon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylonian](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Babylonian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [became](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=became&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Biblical](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Biblical&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) 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[deported](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=deported&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Elayi](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Elayi&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [eponym](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=eponym&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [eunuch](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=eunuch&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [fact](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=fact&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [followed](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=followed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [governor](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=governor&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [high dignitaries](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=high+dignitaries&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [History](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=History&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [identified](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=identified&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Inscriptions+of+Tiglath-pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Israel](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Israel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [John](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=John&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Judah](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Judah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [king of Assyria](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=king+of+Assyria&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [kingdom](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=kingdom&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letter](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=letter&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Lipiński](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Lipi%C5%84ski&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [List](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=List&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [located](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=located&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [means](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=means&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mount](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Mount&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mountain](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=mountain&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo-Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Neo-Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nimrud](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Nimrud&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ninth](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=ninth&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palû](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=pal%C3%BB&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [passage](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=passage&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [placed](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=placed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [possibly](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=possibly&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [presented](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=presented&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [province](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=province&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Radner](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Radner&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remained](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=remained&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [revolt](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=revolt&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [RIMA](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=RIMA&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [RINAP](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=RINAP&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=royal+inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sarduri](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Sarduri&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shamshî-ilu](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Shamsh%C3%AE-ilu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [situation](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=situation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [stela](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=stela&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [strategy](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=strategy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Syria](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Syria&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tadmor](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tadmor&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [territory](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=territory&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [throne](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=throne&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath-pileser III](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath-pileser+III&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath-pileser III's](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath-pileser+III%E2%80%99s&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath-pileser's](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath-pileser%E2%80%99s&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tion](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=tion&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [treaty](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=treaty&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tribes](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=tribes&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tribute](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=tribute&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tyre](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Tyre&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Urartu](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Urartu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [vassal](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=vassal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [West](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=West&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [World](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=World&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Yamada](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Yamada&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Zagros](https://books.google.com/books?id=wap5EAAAQBAJ&q=Zagros&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ

| | The Church in Iraq The persecution of the church in Iraq is one of the great tragedies of the twenty-first century. In this short, yet sweeping account, Cardinal Filoni, the former Papal Nuncio to Iraq, shows us the people and the faith in the land of Abraham and Babylon, a region that has been home to Persians, Parthians, Byzantines, Mongols, Ottomans, and more. This is the compelling and rich history of the Christian communities in a land that was once the frontier between Rome and Persia, for centuries the crossroads of East and West for armies of invaders and merchants, and the cradle of all human civilization. Its unique cultural legacy has, in the past few years, been all but obliterated. The Church in Iraq is both a diligent record and loving testimonial to a community that is struggling desperately to exist. Filoni guides the reader through almost two thousand years of history, telling the story of a people who trace their faith back to the Apostle Thomas. The diversity of peoples and churches is brought deftly into focus through the lens of their interactions with the papacy, but The Church in Iraq does not shy away from discussing the local political, ethnic, and theological tensions that have resulted in centuries of communion and schism. Never losing his focus on the people to whom this book is so clearly dedicated, Cardinal Filoni has produced a personal and engaging history of the relationship between Rome and the Eastern Churches. This book has much to teach its reader about the church in the near East. Perhaps its most brutal lesson is the ease with which such a depth of history and culture can be wiped away in a few short decades. Contents The Geopolitical Context |1| 1 The Ancient Christian Community |6| The Arab 6511258 Mongol 12581410 and Turkish 14101508 Ages |24| The Safavid Dynasty and the Ottoman Era |39| Demographic and Geographic Upheaval and the Birth of Iraq |119| 5 The Holy See and Iraq |164| |185| |191|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN0813229650&id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [Alqosh](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Alqosh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Altmayer](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Altmayer&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [apostolic delegate](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=apostolic+delegate&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [apostolic vicar](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=apostolic+vicar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [appointed](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=appointed&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) 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[became](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=became&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Berré](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Berr%C3%A9&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [caliphate](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=caliphate&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Capuchin](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Capuchin&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Cardinal](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Cardinal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Carmelites](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Carmelites&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Carmelites in Persia](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Carmelites+in+Persia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Catholic Church](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Catholic+Church&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chaldean](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Chaldean&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chaldean bishops](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Chaldean+bishops&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chaldean Church](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Chaldean+Church&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chaldean patriarch](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Chaldean+patriarch&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Christian communities](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Christian+communities&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chronicle](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Chronicle&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [clergy](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=clergy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [communion](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=communion&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Congregation](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Congregation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [consecrated](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=consecrated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Constantinople](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Constantinople&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Council](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Council&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Coupperie](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Coupperie&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [deposit Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=deposit+Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Diarbekir](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Diarbekir&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Dinkha](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Dinkha&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [diocese](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=diocese&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [diplomatic](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=diplomatic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) 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[Kurds](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Kurds&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Latin Church](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Latin+Church&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Letter from Propaganda](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Letter+from+Propaganda&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [liturgical](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=liturgical&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Malabar](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Malabar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [mission](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=mission&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [missionary](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=missionary&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) 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[Syrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Syrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [territory](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=territory&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [tion](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=tion&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [titular](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=titular&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Trioche](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Trioche&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Turkish](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Turkish&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [unity](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=unity&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Vatican](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Vatican&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [villages](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=villages&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [wrote](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=wrote&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Yousuf](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Yousuf&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Zakho](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ&q=Zakho&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ

| | Sennacherib at the Gates of Jerusalem: Story, History and Historiography Sennacherib and his ill-fated siege of Jerusalem fascinated the ancient world. Twelve scholars—in Hebrew Bible, Assyriology, archaeology, Egyptology, Classics, Aramaic, Rabbinic and Christian literatures—examine how and why the Sennacherib story was told and re-told in more than a dozen cultures for over a thousand years. From Akkadian to Arabic, stories and legends about Sennacherib became the first vernacular tales of the imperial world. These essays address outstanding historical issues of the campaign and the sources, and press on to expose the stories' theological and cultural roles in inner-cultural dialogues, ethnic origin stories, and morality tales. This book is the first of its kind for readers seeking out historical and historiographic bridges between the ancient and late antique worlds. "This work will undoubtedly serve as an important resource on the Assyrian attack on Jerusalem in 701..." Song-Mi Suzie Park, Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Horizons in Biblical Theology Selected pages Contents An Introduction |1| Part One I Will Defend this City to Save It |9| The Chroniclers View Compared with His Biblical Sources |11| Assessing the Limits of Historical Reconstruction |51| The Archaeological Perspective with an Emphasis on Lachish and Jerusalem |75| Kushite Intervention and the Limits of lhistoire événementielle |105| Part Two The Weapon of Aššur |161| Psychohistorical Reflections on Sennacherib and His Times |163| Memories of Sennacherib in Aramaic Tradition |295| Sennacheribs Campaign and its Reception in the Time of the Second Temple |325| Inscribing History in Midrash |347| Looking for King Sennacherib in Early Christian Literature |389| Sennacherib at Jerusalem |433| |507| |534| |536| 701 BCE in the Context of Sennacheribs PoliticalMilitary Strategy |223| Sennacheribs Invasion of the Levant through the Eyes of Assyrian Intelligence Services |249| Part Three After Life |293|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN9004265627&id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ) No preview available - 2014 Common terms and phrases [25th Dynasty](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=25th+Dynasty&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ahiqar](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Ahiqar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [angel](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=angel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Aramaic](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Aramaic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Arameans](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Arameans&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [archaeological](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=archaeological&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashkelon](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Ashkelon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Aššur](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=A%C5%A1%C5%A1ur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) 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[Bible](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Bible&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Campaign to Judah](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Campaign+to+Judah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century B.C.E.](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=century+B.C.E.&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Chron](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Chron&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Chronicles](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Chronicles&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Commentary](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Commentary&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [crown prince](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=crown+prince&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cultural](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=cultural&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Dalley](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Dalley&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Diodore](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Diodore&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Egypt](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Egypt&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Egyptian](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Egyptian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Einleitung](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Einleitung&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ekron](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Ekron&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eltekeh](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Eltekeh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [enemy](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=enemy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Excavations](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Excavations&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [exile](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=exile&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [father](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=father&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Hebrew](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Hebrew&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Heze](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Heze&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Hezekiah](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Hezekiah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [History](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=History&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ibid](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Ibid&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [imperial](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=imperial&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [intelligence](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=intelligence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [interpretation](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=interpretation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Isaiah](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Isaiah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Israel](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Israel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Jerusalem](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Jerusalem&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Jewish](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Jewish&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Judean](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Judean&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalimi](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Kalimi&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kawa](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Kawa&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [king of Assyria](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=king+of+Assyria&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kingdoms](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Kingdoms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kush](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Kush&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kushite](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Kushite&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Lachish](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Lachish&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Leiden](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Leiden&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [literature](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=literature&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Lord](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Lord&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Luckenbill](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Luckenbill&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mār](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=M%C4%81r&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamian](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Midrash](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Midrash&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [nacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=nacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [narrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=narrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo-Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Neo-Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nimrud](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Nimrud&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nubian](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Nubian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Parpola](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Parpola&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Philistia](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Philistia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [prophet](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=prophet&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Psalms](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Psalms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rabbinic](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=rabbinic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reference](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=reference&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [SAA XV](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=SAA+XV&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sanherib-Inschriften](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sanherib-Inschriften&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon II](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sargon+II&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennach](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sennach&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib's campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib%27s+campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shebna](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Shebna&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [siege](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=siege&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [stela](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=stela&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [story](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=story&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Syriac](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Syriac&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tadmor](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Tadmor&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Taharqa](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Taharqa&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Taharqo](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Taharqo&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Theodoret](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Theodoret&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=third+campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath-pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath-pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath-pileser III](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath-pileser+III&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tion](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=tion&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tobit](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Tobit&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tribute](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=tribute&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [vassal](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=vassal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Yabâ](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=Yab%C3%A2&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [καὶ](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=%CE%BA%CE%B1%E1%BD%B6&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [τὴν](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=%CF%84%E1%BD%B4%CE%BD&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [τοῦ](https://books.google.com/books?id=bF_bAgAAQBAJ&q=%CF%84%CE%BF%E1%BF%A6&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ

| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Akkadian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Akkadian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [apparently](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=apparently&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Archives](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Archives&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ashur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assurbanipal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assurbanipal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian king](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylonian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylonian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [central](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=central&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century BCE](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century+BCE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [continued](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=continued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [court](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=court&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [culture](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=culture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [documents](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=documents&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eastern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Eastern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Edited](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Edited&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Figure](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Figure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalhu](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Kalhu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [late](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=late&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lists](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=lists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Michel](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Michel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [scholars](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=scholars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seals](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [side](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=side&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [statues](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=statues&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ

| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Akkadian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Akkadian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [apparently](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=apparently&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Archives](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Archives&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ashur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assurbanipal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assurbanipal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian king](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylonian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylonian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [central](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=central&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century BCE](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century+BCE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [continued](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=continued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [court](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=court&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [culture](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=culture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [documents](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=documents&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eastern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Eastern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Edited](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Edited&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Figure](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Figure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalhu](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Kalhu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [late](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=late&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lists](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=lists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Michel](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Michel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [scholars](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=scholars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seals](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [side](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=side&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [statues](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=statues&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://www.academia.edu/1915991

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to [upgrade your browser](https://www.academia.edu/upgrade-browser). Philadelphia and London J. B. Lippincott Company / printed at the Washingron Square press comprehensive exploration into the depths of ancient Mesopotamian culture. This book meticulously covers various facets of life in Babylonia and Assyria, offering a holistic view of these ancient civilizations. The Book/ work is divided into several well-structured chapters, each focusing on a different aspect of Mesopotamian life. He begins with the archaeological excavations that unearthed these ancient societies, detailing the discoveries that have helped shape our understanding of their world. The book then transitions into the decipherment of the cuneiform script, a pivotal moment in historical linguistics that unlocked the rich literary and administrative records of these civilizations. A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the historical timeline of Babylonia and Assyria, tracing their rise and fall through the ages. Jastrow provides a detailed narrative of key events and figures, giving readers a clear picture of the political and social dynamics that influenced these empires. Religion plays a central role in Jastrow's analysis. He delves into the pantheon of gods worshipped by the Babylonians and Assyrians, examining their mythology, rituals, and temples. This section is particularly enlightening, as it reveals the spiritual life and practices that were integral to these societies. The book also explores the legal and commercial systems of Babylonia and Assyria. Jastrow provides insights into their laws, trade practices, and economic organization, illustrating how advanced and complex their societies were. This includes an examination of famous legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, which has had a lasting impact on legal traditions. Art (tablets , bowls , monuments , relics , amulets ) and literature are also extensively covered. Jastrow presents an array of artistic achievements, from monumental architecture to intricate jewelry, showcasing the creativity and craftsmanship of these ancient peoples. The literary traditions, including epic poetry and hymns, are analyzed, revealing the richness of Mesopotamian thought and expression. Throughout the book, Jastrow's writing is detailed and scholarly yet accessible. He combines archaeological evidence with historical analysis, providing a well-rounded perspective on Babylonia and Assyria. The numerous illustrations and plates included in the book enhance the reader's understanding, offering visual context to the textual descriptions. The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria is an invaluable/rare - phenomenonal resource for anyone interested in ancient history. Morris Jastrow Jr. has crafted a thorough and engaging account that brings to life the achievements and daily realities of two of the world's earliest civilizations. ## Contents ### Chapter Page I. Excavations at Babylonian and Assyrian Sites 1 II. The Decipherment of the Cuneiform Script 63 III. Survey of Babylonian and Assyrian History 120 IV. The Gods of Babylonia and Assyria 187 V. The Cults and the Temples of Babylonia and Assyria 237 VI. Law and Commerce 283 VII. The Art of Babylonia and Assyria 367 VIII. Specimens of Babylonian and Assyrian Literature 427 Index 497 Below are listed all the illustrations in their entirety for not only easy reference but as wrote in Tags so this work can be found if someone was to type in any of these specific tablets to Monument place names hence this beautiful comprehensive work may be found) - note The below group of Explorers to Scholars are owed allot of gratitude for their sacrifice in these specific studys we now take advantage of today in the 20th to 21st century's- I. Group of Explorers of Babylonia and Assyria, and Early Decipherers of Cuneiform Inscriptions: Sir Austen Henry Layard, Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, Georg Friedrich Grotefend, Rev. Edward Hincks, Jules Oppert, George Smith, Ernest de Sarzec, John Henry Haynes 1 II. Map of Babylonia and Assyria 5 III. Fig. 1. Mound and Village of Khorsabad, the Site of the First Excavations in Assyria 14 Fig. 2. Birs Nimrud, the Site of the Ancient City of Borsippa. The Ruined Edifice is the Remains of the Seven-storied Stage-Tower 14 IV. Fig. 1. Hunting Scene in a Forest (Khorsabad) 16 Fig. 2. Procession of Captives, Bearing Tribute (Khorsabad) 16 V. Fig. 1. Winged Bull with Human Face from the Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, Guarding the Entrance to One of the Large Halls 18 Fig. 2. Attempted Restoration of Sargon's Palace 18 VI. Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria (858-824 B.C.), Illustrating His Triumphant Wars. The Second Row Shows the King Receiving the Tribute of Jehu, the King of Israel 20 VII. Fig. 1. King Sennacherib of Assyria (705-681 B.C.) in His Chariot (Kouyunjik) 22 Fig. 2. Carrying Material Across a Stream—Palace of Sennacherib at Kouyunjik (Nineveh) 22 VIII. Hunting Scenes from the Palace of Ashurbanapal, King of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) 24 Fig. 1. Lion Hunt Fig. 2. Hunting Wild Horses IX. Tablets from Ashurbanapal's Library 26 Fig. 1. Omen Tablet, with Colophon at the Bottom of the Left-hand Column Fig. 2. Syllabary, Furnishing Explanations of Cuneiform Signs X. Shamash, the Sun-god, Seated in His Shrine at Sippar 37 XI. Fig. 1. Specimen of Babylonian Boundary Stone, Containing Record of Grant of Land, with Numerous Designs Representing Symbols of the Gods; Found at Abu Habba 39 Fig. 2. Stone Pedestal (Steatite) with Crouching Figures, from Telloh 39 XII. Figs. 1 and 2. Excavations of Palace of Gudea, Ruler of Lagash (c. 2450 B.C.) and of Later Edifice Erected on the Same Site 41 Fig. 3. Terra-cotta Cylinder, Containing Detailed Record of Gudea's Building Achievements and of His Devotion to the Gods 41 XIII. Fig. 1. Diorite Seated Statue of Gudea, Ruler of Lagash (c. 2450 B.C.) 43 Fig. 2. Standing Statue of Gudea 43 XIV. Fig. 1. Specimens of Tablets and Inscribed Cones Found at Telloh 45 Fig. 2. Necropolis at Telloh, Showing Methods of Burial 45 XV. Fig. 1. Slipper-shaped Coffins (Persian Period) Found at Nippur 48 Fig. 2. Incantation Bowls with Aramaic Inscriptions Found at Nippur 48 XVI. Fig. 1. White Stone Statue of the Goddess Ninlil (Bismya) 53 Fig. 2. Design on an Inscribed Boat-shaped Vase (Bismya) 53 Fig. 3. Design on an Inlaid Vase (Bismya) 53 XVII. Fig. 1. Excavations at Kaleh-Shergat, the Site of Ashur, the Ancient Capitol of Assyria 57 Fig. 2. Memorial Steles Erected at Ashur in Honor of Rulers and High Officials 57 XVIII. Fig. 1. The Lion of Babylon. Glazed Tile Work of the Days of Nebuchadnezzar II., King of Babylonia, (604-561 B.C.) 60 Fig. 2. Archway of Colored, Glazed Tiles (Khorsabad) 60 XIX. Fig. 1. Ruins at Persepolis 64 Fig. 2. Remains of the Propylæa of the Palace of Xerxes I (486-465 B.C.) at Persepolis 64 XX. Specimens of the Three Classes of Cuneiform Characters on the Monuments at Persepolis. B and G (Through Which Grotepend Discovered His Key) Represent Class I, i.e., Old Persian; C Represents Class III, i.e., Babylonian-Assyrian; D Represents Class II, i.e., Neo-Elamitic 70 XXI. Fig. 1. Portion of the Great Rock Sculpture and Inscription of Darius I (522-486 B.C.) Showing Darius Receiving the Nine Rebels and Pretenders to the Throne 83 Fig. 2. Vase of Xerxes I (486-465 B.C.), Containing the Name of the King in the Three Classes of Cuneiform Characters (Old Persian, Neo-Elamitic and Babylonian-Assyrian) and in Egyptian Hieroglyphics 83 XXII. Fig. 1. Sumerian Type 121 Fig. 2. Limestone Head (Bismya), Showing Early Semite Type in Babylonia 121 XXIII. Fig. 1. Obelisk of Manishtusu, King of Kish (c. 2600 B.C.) 134 Fig. 2. Bust of Manishtusu 134 XXIV. Fig. 1. Lugal-daudu, King of Adab, as Type of Sumerian 143 Fig. 2. Marduk-nadin-akhi, King of Babylonia (c. 1140-1086 B.C.) From a Boundary Stone of the King's Reign, as Type of Semite 143 XXV. Fig. 1. Prism Containing in Ten Columns the Annals of Ashurbanapal, King of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) 174 Fig. 2. Clay Cylinder, Containing the Account of Cyrus' Capture of Babylon (539 B.C.) 174 XXVI. Fig. 1. Stele of Ashurnasirpal III, King of Assyria (883-859 B.C.) 178 Fig. 2. Stele of Esarhaddon, King of Assyria (680-669 B.C.) with Two Royal Prisoners, Tirhaka, King of Ethiopia, and Ba'alu, King of Tyre 178 XXVII. Terra-cotta Votive Images of the God Enlil and of His Consort Ninlil (Nippur) 188 XXVIII. Fig. 1. The God Marduk in Conflict with the Monster Tiamat, the Symbol of Primeval Chaos 211 Fig. 2. Procession of Gods, Mounted on Animals with Which They Were Symbolically Associated; Rock Sculpture at Malthiyeh in the Mountains of Kurdistan, Two Days North of Mosul 211 XXIX. Fig. 1. Nabu, the Chief Deity of Borsippa 218 Fig. 2. Ishtar as the Mother Goddess 218 Fig. 3. Ishtar as the Goddess of War. Rock Sculpture in the Zagros Mountains, with Votive Inscription of Anubanini, King of the Lulubi (c. 2400 B.C.), to Whom the Goddess is Bringing Prisoners of War 218 XXX. Fig. 1. Marduk, the Chief Deity of Babylon 223 Fig. 2. Adad, the God of Storms 223 XXXI. Fig. 1. Ashur (?), the Chief Deity of Assyria 229 Figs. 2 and 3. Winged Discs as Symbols of the God Ashur, Originally a Sun Deity, but as the Head of the Assyrian Pantheon, Also a God of War 229 XXXII. Fig. 1. Types of Demons 241 Fig. 2. Human-headed Lion, a Type of Monstrous Being Akin to the Demons 241 XXXIII. Assyrian King Worshipping the Tree of Life, Accompanied by Winged, Semi-divine Beings as Guardians and Fertilizers of the Tree. The Scene is Symmetrically Repeated. Above the Tree is the Symbol of the God Ashur, Represented as a Winged Disc with Human Torso 246 XXXIV. Typical Babylonian and Assyrian Temples, Built on Stage-towers, the More Primitive Form of the Pyramid 248 XXXV. Fig. 1. Entrance to the Temple Court of the Goddess Eanna, at Warka (Erech), Built by Sargon I, King of Babylonia (c. 3800 B.C.) 250 Fig. 2. Exterior of the Temple of Nabu at Borsippa 250 XXXVI. Fig. 1. Seals Representing a Scene of... Babylonia and Assyria were two of the greatest nations the history of mankind has brought forth. These two great Mesopotamian civilizations were best known for their massive armies and instruments of war. This is not surprising, since they were rarely at peace with one another. They were, however, heavily influenced by each other, as well as their predecessors, the Sumerians. Much of what we taken for granted today, the arts and science of industry and invention, were bequeathed to us from these ancient cultures. This two-volume series is remarkable in that it offers an exceedingly comprehensive and detailed looked at ancient Babylonia and Assyria. The way in which these reference works were compiled and written will bring noteworthy enjoyment for the curious reader. These two volumes are based mostly on the archaeological discoveries of the late 19th Century, and are well-referenced and cited with footnotes from that period. As a result, much of what they have to say is timeless, in a sense, because of nature of how the information is presented. For example, randomly thumbing through this 900 page tome and stopping to read a passage will normally result in the reader being completely preoccupied in whatever annals of history is being revealed. As a professor of ancient Oriental literature at Princeton University at the turn of the twentieth century, professor Robert William Rogers provides a competent perspective concerning the past history of Babylonia and Assyria. This book was skillfully written from the author's vast scholarship and understanding on these subjects. Volume two examines the beginnings of the Assyrian empire, its trials and tribulations, and how it eventually held authority over the Babylonians. The author reveals in meticulous detail each of the kingships as well as the accompanying wars, revolts and rebellions. A considerable amount of space is devoted to the reigns of specific Assyrian kings, including Asshurnazirpal, Shalmaneser, Asshurnirari, Sargon, and many others. Throughout these Assyrian king's regimes many new cities were founded, and others destroyed, along the banks for the Euphrates river. Also included is a detailed record on the noteworthy conquests, tributes, and building projects of each kingship. This volume also covers the reign of Sennacherib, who ascended to the throne after the mysterious death of Sargon II in 705 B.C.E. As was the case many times with kings in ancient Assyria, Sennacherib was assassinated, leaving his son, Esarhaddon the legal heir to the throne. We owe a great deal of thanks to the next king, Asshurbanapal, for he was devoted to the collection of books in the form of clay tablets. He took great care that his deeds and his wars, his buildings and his very thoughts and hope, should be carefully written down. During his reign it was obvious that the Assyrian empire had started to collapse. Asshurbanapal's death in 626 B.C.E., began a new revolt by the Babylonians, who, with the help of the Meades,* were finally able to subdue their long-time rivals. This two-volume set concludes with a brief history of the Chaldean empire, whose most famous king, Nebuchadnezzar, helped restore Babylon to its former glory. 1988 • Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 2009 • The history of upper Mesopotamia, 1 the land encompassing the basins of the Bali~ and the @abur, is floodlighted for almost half a century by the archives of Mari starting from the reign of Ya~dun-Līm, and reaching, through the era of &am^ī-Adad, the end of Zimrī-Līm's reign; then history suddenly plunges into darkness, to be only poorly illuminated now and then by the archives of Tell er-Rimah and Tell Leilan, but with the year 23 of Samsuiluna (1728 B.C.) 2 local evidence available to us totally stops and we must wait till the Amarna period and the Middle Assyrian administrative archives. In particular, if we want to know more about the "dark" 17th century, apart from the marginal contribution of the documents from Terqa and the Kingdom of @ana, we are restricted to the information coming from @attuša. Needless to underline the importance of this period, ending with the Hittite raid against Babylon, when the seeds of the later Mittanian and Kassite kingdoms were sown. The Hittite interest in northern Mesopotamia was aroused at first by the decline of the Assyrian trade organisation, whose caravans had crossed the area for 250 years 3 with substantial advantages 1. For the political history of the four centuries of Amorrite supremacy in Syria and Mesopotamia, the Old Babylonian period, we have now of a complete and detailed reference work, see Charpin 2004. 2. All the dates in the present article, if not differently specified, are based on the so-called Middle Chronology, used as a conventional reference. Absolute dating is quite a different thing. The three traditional Chronologies were based on the Venus observations, whose value is presently questioned, cf. Sassmannshausen 2002, 65: "Therefore the question of high, middle or low chronology should not be asked any more, at least not in the way it has been done since the early 1940's when these chronologies were first established"; textual evidence, archaeological observations, dendrochronological measures, Assyrian "Distanzangaben" have so far been used to reach absolute datings, but the results diverge, from a reappraisal of the High to an Ultra-low Chronology. Hittite generations count and dendrochronological dates seem however to favour a dating not too far from the Middle Chronology (see below). 3. I have recently tried to update the outline of their itineraries with the help of the evidence from Mari and from Hittite sources (Forlanini 2004; 2006). Buccellati, G., and M. Kelly-Buccellati. 1977. "Syro-Mesopotamian Studies: A Preface." Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 1 (1): 1–2. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.8288972. Loading Preview Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East 2012 • Current Research in Early Mesopotamian Studies. Workshop Organized at the 65th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Paris 2019. Dubsar 21 J. B. Lippincott & Co The Date of the Accession to Nabonidus to the Throne of Babylon: A Reappraisal of the Evidence, edited by C.J. Crisosomo et al 2018 • Longmans, Green & Co. is a British publishing company A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law (2 vols) 2000 • in W. Sallaberger and I. Schrakamp (eds.), History & Philology (ARCANE 3; Turnhout), pp. 139-156 2015 •

Tiglat-Pileser III

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| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) 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Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [scholars](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=scholars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seals](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [side](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=side&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [statues](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=statues&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)

Tiglat-Pileser III

https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ

| | A Companion to Assyria A Companion to Assyria is a collection of original essays on ancient Assyria written by key international scholars. These new scholarly contributions have substantially reshaped contemporary understanding of society and life in this ancient civilization. Selected pages Contents Geography and History |11| The Old Assyrian Period 20th18th Century BCE |57| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period |80| The Transition Period 17th to 15th Century BCE |108| Economy Society and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period |143| The NeoAssyrian Period ca 1000609 BCE |161| PostImperial Assyria |229| Assyria and its Neighbors |247| Assyrian Religion |336| Assyrian Literature |359| Assyrian Cities and Architecture |423| Russell |453| Assyrian Technology |511| Thoughts on the Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Kingship |534| The Afterlife and Rediscovery of Assyria |547| Assyria in the Hebrew Bible |556|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN1444335936&id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ) Common terms and phrases [according](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=according&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [administrative](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=administrative&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Akkadian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Akkadian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Anatolia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Anatolia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ancient](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancient&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [apparently](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=apparently&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Archives](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Archives&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ashur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Ashur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assur](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assur&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assurbanipal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assurbanipal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Assyrian king](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Assyrian+king&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Babylonian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Babylonian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [building](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=building&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [campaign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=campaign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [capital](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=capital&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [central](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=central&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [century BCE](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=century+BCE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [continued](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=continued&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [court](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=court&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [culture](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=culture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [cuneiform](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=cuneiform&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [divine](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=divine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [documents](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=documents&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [early](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=early&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Eastern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Eastern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Edited](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Edited&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Esarhaddon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Esarhaddon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [evidence](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=evidence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [example](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=example&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [excavated](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=excavated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Figure](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Figure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Frahm](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Frahm&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gods](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=gods&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Grayson](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Grayson&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [inscriptions](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=inscriptions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Iraq](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Iraq&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kalhu](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Kalhu&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [known](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=known&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [late](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=late&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [later](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=later&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [letters](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=letters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lists](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=lists&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mentioned](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=mentioned&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Michel](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Michel&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Middle Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Middle+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [millennium](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=millennium&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Museum](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Museum&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Neo‐Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Neo%E2%80%90Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nineveh](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Nineveh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [northern](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=northern&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [officials](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=officials&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Old Assyrian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Old+Assyrian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [original](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=original&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [period](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=period&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Persian](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Persian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [political](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=political&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [present](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=present&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Press](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Press&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [probably](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=probably&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Reade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [references](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=references&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reign](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reliefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reliefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [remains](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=remains&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [reports](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=reports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [River](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=River&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rooms](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rooms&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [royal](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=royal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [ruled](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=ruled&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [rulers](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=rulers&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sargon](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sargon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [scholars](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=scholars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seals](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [seems](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=seems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sennacherib](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Sennacherib&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [settlement](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=settlement&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shalmaneser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Shalmaneser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [side](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=side&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sources](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=sources&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [statues](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=statues&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Studies&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tablets](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tablets&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tell](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tell&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [temple](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=temple&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Text Corpus](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Text+Corpus&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [texts](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=texts&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [third](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=third&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiglath‐pileser](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tiglath%E2%80%90pileser&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tradition](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=tradition&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [University](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=University&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Veenhof](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=Veenhof&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [wall](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=wall&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [western](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=western&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [written](https://books.google.com/books?id=nhsmDwAAQBAJ&q=written&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4)