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The **220s** decade ran from January 1, 220, to December 31, 229. Events ------ ### 220 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * The Goths invade Asia Minor and the Balkans. * An Indian delegation visits the Roman emperor Elagabalus. * Great frost in Roman Britain is said to have lasted for five months. * Imperator Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (Elagabalus) and Publius Valerius Comazon become Roman consuls. * Elagabalus divorces Julia Paula and marries Aquilia Severa, a Vestal Virgin. The wedding causes an enormous controversy – traditionally, the punishment for breaking celibacy is death by being buried alive. ###### Parthian Empire * King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, gains support from some Parthian sub-kings and revolts against the rule of Vologases VI. Ardashir, a grandson of Sasan, had ruled Persis since 208 and six years earlier gained control of the region surrounding Persepolis. ###### China * March 15 – Cao Cao, Imperial Chancellor and ruler of the Kingdom of Wei, dies. * December 11 – Cao Pi receives the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han and proclaims himself emperor of Cao Wei. This ends the Han dynasty, the former emperor being created Duke of Shanyang. #### By topic ###### Religion * The Wei dynasty gives official recognition to Taoism as its religious sect, and the sect’s celestial masters reciprocate, by giving spiritual approbation to the Wei as successors to the Han. By the end of the century, most powerful families in northern China have subscribed to Daoist principles. ### 221 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * June 26 – Emperor Elagabalus adopts his cousin Alexander Severus as his heir, and receives the title of Caesar. * July – Elagabalus is forced to divorce Aquilia Severa, and marries his third wife Annia Faustina. After five months he returns to Severa, and claims that the original divorce is invalid. The marriage is symbolic, because Elagabalus appears to be homosexual or bisexual. According to the historian Cassius Dio, he has a stable relationship with his chariot driver, the slave Hierocles. ###### Asia * May 15 – Liu Bei, Chinese warlord and descendant of the imperial clan of the Han Dynasty, proclaims himself emperor in Chengdu, Sichuan, and establishes the state of Shu Han. ### 222 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * March 11 – Emperor Elagabalus is assassinated, along with his mother, Julia Soaemias, by the Praetorian Guard during a revolt. Their mutilated bodies are dragged through the streets of Rome before being thrown into the Tiber. * Alexander Severus succeeds Elagabalus. He is only 13 years old; his mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, governs the Roman Empire with the help of Domitius Ulpianus and a council composed of 16 senators. ###### China * Battle of Xiaoting/Yiling: The Chinese state of Shu Han is defeated by Eastern Wu. #### By topic ###### Commerce * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 35 percent under emperor Alexander Severus, down from 43 percent under Elagabalus. ###### Religion * October 14 – Pope Callixtus I is killed by a mob in Rome's Trastevere after a 5-year reign in which he has stabilized the Saturday fast three times per year, with no food, oil, or wine to be consumed on those days. Callixtus is succeeded by Cardinal Urban I. ### 223 #### By place ###### Asia * Battle of Dongkou: The Chinese state of Cao Wei is defeated by Eastern Wu. ### 224 #### By place ###### Parthia * April 28 – Battle of Hormozdgan: King Ardashir I defeats Artabanus V, destroying the Parthian Empire, and establishing the Sassanid Dynasty. Artabanus V's brother Vologases VI will continue to rule, with Armenian and Kushan support, over outlying parts of Parthia. ### 225 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Alexander Severus marries Sallustia Orbiana, and possibly raises her father Seius Sallustius to the rank of Caesar. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * The first Christian paintings appear in Rome, decorating the Catacombs. ### 226 #### By place ###### China * A merchant from the Roman Empire, called "Qin Lun" by the Chinese, arrives in Jiaozhi (modern Hanoi), and is taken to see King Sun Quan of Eastern Wu, who requests him to make a report on his native country and people. He is given an escort for the return trip, including a present of ten male and ten female "blackish-colored dwarfs." However, the officer in charge of the Chinese escort dies, and Qin Lun has to continue his journey home alone. ###### Persian Empire * Ctesiphon, until now capital of the Parthian Empire, falls into the hands of the Sasanian Empire, who also make it their capital, after putting an end to the Parthian Dynasty in Iran. ### 227 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Seius Sallustius is executed for the attempted murder of his son-in-law, Emperor Alexander Severus. Sallustius' daughter, as well as Alexander's wife, Sallustia Orbiana, is exiled to Libya. ###### Ireland * The rule of High King Cormac mac Airt begins (approximate). ###### Persian Empire * King Ardashir I annexes his new empire from the east to the northwest. He conquers, with his army, the provinces of Chorasmia, Sistan and the island Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The kings of the Kushan Empire and Turan recognize Ardashir as their overlord. ###### Asia * Dongcheon becomes ruler over the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. ### 228 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Domitius Ulpianus, a Roman jurist and prefect, is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, in the presence of Emperor Severus Alexander. His curtailment of the privileges of the palace guard becomes Ulpianus' downfall, who in the course of a riot at Rome is murdered, between the soldiers and the mob. ###### Persian Empire * King Ardashir I, four years after establishing the Sassanid Persian Empire, completes his conquest of Parthia. ###### China * c. February–May – Battle of Jieting: The Cao Wei Kingdom decisively defeats the Shu Han Kingdom. * June–October – Battle of Shiting: The Eastern Wu Kingdom defeats the Cao Wei Kingdom. ### 229 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Alexander Severus and Dio Cassius are joint Consuls. ###### China * February–May – Battle of Jianwei: The state of Shu Han is victorious over the state of Cao Wei. * June 23 – Chinese warlord Sun Quan formally declares himself emperor of the Eastern Wu state. The city of Jianye (modern Nanjing) is founded as the capital of Eastern Wu. The independent kingdoms in Cambodia and Laos become Eastern Wu vassals. * Eastern Wu merchants reach Vietnam; ocean transport is improved to such an extent, that sea journeys are made to Manchuria and the island of Taiwan. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * Ammonius Saccas renews Greek philosophy by creating Neoplatonism. Significant people ------------------ Births ------ **220** * Wei Guan, Chinese official of the Cao Wei state and the Western Jin dynasty (d. 291) **221** * Liu Ling, Chinese poet and scholar (d. 300) * Yang Hu, Chinese general and politician (d. 278) **222** * Marcus Aurelius Carus, Roman emperor (d. 283) * Du Yu (or **Yuankai**), Chinese general and politician (d. 285) **223** * Ji Kang, Chinese poet and philosopher (d. 262) * Wang Hun, Chinese general and politician (d. 297) **224** * Jungcheon of Goguryeo, Korean ruler (d. 270) * Liu Xuan (or Wenheng), Chinese prince (d. 264) * Marcus Aurelius Carus, Roman emperor (d. 283) * Mercurius, Christian saint and martyr (d. 250) * Pei Xiu, Chinese official and politician (d. 271) * Sun He (or Zixiao), Chinese prince (d. 253) **225** * January 20 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (d. 244) * December 31 – Lawrence, Christian martyr (d. 258) * Trieu Thi Trinh, Vietnamese female warrior (d. 248) * Zhong Hui, Chinese general and politician (d. 264) **226** * Lu Kang, Chinese general and politician (d. 274) * Wang Bi (or **Fusi**), Chinese philosopher (d. 249) **227** * Herennius Etruscus, Roman emperor (d. 251) * Sima Zhou, Chinese prince and general (d. 283) * Zhuge Zhan, Chinese general and official (d. 263) **228** * Paul of Thebes, Christian hermit (approximate date) * Wang Fan, Chinese politician and astronomer (d. 266) Deaths ------ **220** * March 15 – Cao Cao, Chinese warlord of the Eastern Han dynasty (b. 155) * June 13 – Xiahou Dun, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Cao Cao * December – Cheng Yu, Chinese official serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Cao Cao (b. 141) * Fa Zheng, Chinese official serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei (b. 176) * Guan Yu, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei * Huang Zhong, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Liu Bei * Lü Meng, Chinese general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty warlord Sun Quan (b. 178) * Bassilla, Roman actress, dancer and singer (approximate year) **221** * August 4 – Lady Zhen, Chinese noblewoman (b. 183) * Dong He (or **Youzai**), Chinese official and politician * Mi Zhu, Chinese general and politician (b. 165) * Yu Jin, Chinese general serving under Cao Cao * Zhang Fei, Chinese general and politician **222** * March 11 + Elagabalus, Roman emperor (b. 203) + Julia Soaemias, mother of Elagabalus (b. 180) * Annia Faustina, Roman noblewoman and empress * Bardaisan, Syriac scholar and philosopher (b. 154) * Callixtus I, pope of the Catholic Church * Cheng Ji (or **Jiran**), Chinese general * Feng Xi (or **Xiuyuan**), Chinese general * Hierocles, favourite and lover of Elagabalus * Liu Ba (or **Zichu**), Chinese official and politician * Ma Chao, Chinese general and warlord (b. 176) * Ma Liang, Chinese diplomat and politician (b. 187) * Xu Jing (or **Wenxiu**), Chinese official and politician * Zhang Liao (or **Wenyuan**), Chinese general (b. 169) **223** * May 6 – Cao Ren (or **Zixiao**), Chinese general (b. 168) * June 10 – Liu Bei, Chinese warlord and emperor (b. 161) * August 1 – Cao Zhang, Chinese prince and warlord * August 11 – Jia Xu, Chinese official and politician (b. 147) * Xing Yong (or **Zi'ang**), Chinese official and politician * Zhang Ji (or **Derong**), Chinese official and politician **224** * April 28 – Artabanus IV, king of Parthia * Du Ji, Chinese official and politician * Ji Yan, Chinese official and politician * Zhu Zhi, Chinese general and politician (b. 156) **225** * Gaius Vettius Gratus Sabinianus, Roman consul * Gong Lu, Chinese official and politician (b. 195) * Sun Shao, Chinese official and chancellor (b. 163) * Xiahou Shang, Chinese general and politician **226** * June 29 – Cao Pi, Chinese emperor (b. 187) * Farn-Sasan, king of the Parthian Kingdom * Shi Xie, Chinese politician and warlord (b. 137) * Xiahou Shang (or **Boren**), Chinese general **227** * Han Dang (or **Yigong**), Chinese general * He Qi (or **Gongmiao**), Chinese general * Seius Sallustius, Roman usurper (Caesar) * Shi Hui, Chinese official and general (b. 165) * Xu Huang (or **Gongming**), Chinese general **228** * Cao Xiu, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state * Domitius Ulpianus, Roman jurist and prefect (b. 170) * Jia Kui, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state (b. 174) * Lü Fan, Chinese general of the Eastern Wu state * Luo Tong, Chinese official and general (b. 193) * Ma Su, Chinese general of the Shu Han state (b. 190) * Meng Da, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state * Wang Lang, Chinese official of the Cao Wei state * Zhuge Qiao, Chinese official and general (b. 204) **229** * Cao Li, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 208) * Cao Yong, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state * Zhao Yun, Chinese general of the Shu Han state

220s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/220s

Year **223 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Flaminus and Philus** (or, less frequently, **year 531 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 223 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Seleucid Empire * The Seleucid king Seleucus III is assassinated in Phrygia by members of his army while on campaign against Attalus of Pergamon. * Seleucus is succeeded by his younger brother, Antiochus III. From the previous administration, Antiochus III retains Hermeias as his chief minister, Achaeus as governor of Anatolia, and Molon and his brother Alexander as governors of the eastern provinces of Media and Persis. #### Roman Republic * Gaius Flaminius is elected consul for the first time and, with Publius Furius Philus, he forces the Cisalpine Gauls to submit to Rome, creating the province of Cisalpine Gaul. #### Greece * The Spartan king Cleomenes III destroys and burns the city of Megalopolis but the inhabitants are saved by Philopoemen who leads the defence of the city until the inhabitants can escape. * The king of Macedonia, Antigonus III Doson, restores Macedonian influence in the Peloponnese for the first time in almost two decades. After signing alliances with the Achaeans, Boeotians, Thessalians and the Acarnanians, Antigonus invades the Peloponnese and drives the Spartans out of Argos, taking Orchomenus and Mantineia in the process. #### Persia * King Diodotus II of Bactria is killed by a usurper, Euthydemus I, founder of the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty. #### China * The Qin generals Wang Jian and Meng Wu defeat the Chu general Xiang Yan and the king of Chu, Lord Changping. Lord Changping is killed, and Xiang Yan commits suicide soon afterwards. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Lord Changping, the last king of Chu, one of the Seven Warring States in ancient China. * Diodotus II, King of Bactria, the son and successor of Diodotus I (approximate date) (b. c. 252 BC) * Seleucus III, king of the Seleucid dynasty from 226 BC (assassinated) (b. c. 243 BC)

223 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/223_BC

Year **229 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Albinus and Centumalus** (or, less frequently, **year 525 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 229 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Anatolia * Attalus I of Pergamon wins the Battle of the Harpasus in western Anatolia. #### Illyria * The First Illyrian War starts when the Roman Senate dispatches an army under the command of the consuls Lucius Postumius Albinus and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus to Illyria. Rome forces the withdrawal of Illyrian garrisons in the Greek cities of Epidamnus, Apollonia, Corcyra and Pharos and establishes a protectorate over these Greek towns. * The Illyrian tribe of the Ardiaei is subdued by the Romans. * The King of Macedonia, Demetrius II, dies. His nephew, Antigonus III comes to the Macedonian throne as regent for his half-cousin and the future king Philip V, who is only ten years old. * Concerned at Rome's expansion, Antigonus III pursues a policy of befriending the Illyrians, even though the Greeks in the region support Rome in quelling the Illyrian pirates. * The involvement of Rome in Illyria leads to the establishment of friendly relations between Rome and the enemies of Macedonia: the Aetolian League and Achaean League, which approve the suppression of Illyrian piracy. * Aratus of Sicyon brings Argos into the Achaean League and then helps liberate Athens. This brings Aratus into conflict with Sparta. #### China * The Qin general Wang Jian launches a three-pronged invasion of the state of Zhao but is hindered by the Zhao general Li Mu. * The Zhao Prime Minister Guo Kai, influenced by the machinations of Qin, executes Li Mu. Births ------ * Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, Roman consul and general (d. 160 BC) * Qin Er Shi, Chinese emperor of the Qin Dynasty (d. 207 BC) * Titus Quinctius Flaminius, Roman consul and general (d. 174 BC) Deaths ------ * Demetrius II, Macedonian king from 239 BC (b. c. 276 BC) * Li Mu, Chinese general of the Zhao State (Warring States Period) * Margos of Keryneia, Greek general of the Achaean League

229 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/229_BC

Year **276** (**CCLXXVI**) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Tacitus and Aemilianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1029 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 276 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Tacitus doubles the silver content of the aurelianianus, and halves its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. They carry the value marks X.I. * Tacitus campaigns successfully against the Goths who have invaded Asia Minor, and his half-brother, the praetorian prefect Marcus Annius Florianus, continues the campaign. * Tacitus' cousin Maximinus administers Syria in a harsh manner, and is assassinated by local men of power, who are joined in the conspiracy by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian in the previous year. * Tacitus dies in Tyana, Cappadocia. He either dies of illness, or is murdered by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian and Maximinus. * Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legion's in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy. * Florianus holds power for some weeks and fights indecisively against Probus in Cilicia, but his soldiers, many of whom are from the colder Rhine and Danube frontiers, suffer from heat and disease. He is overthrown and then assassinated by his own troops near Tarsus (Turkey), in collusion with Probus. Probus, age 44, is proclaimed new Emperor of Rome. * Probus returns the aurelianianus to the tariffing of Aurelian. * Probus invites the faction responsible for the murders of Aurelian and Tacitus to a banquet, only to massacre them. He then arrests a surviving conspirator and has him burned alive. #### Sassanid Empire * King Bahram I of Persia dies after a 3-year reign, in which the Zoroastrian priests at Ctesiphon (Iran) put pressure on him to persecute Buddhists, Christians, and Manichaeans. He is succeeded by his son Bahram II. #### Asia * Mahasena reigns in Ceylon. Orthodox and unpopular, he tries to introduce Mahayana Buddhism to the country. Births ------ * Gregory the Elder, bishop of Nazianzus (approximate date) * Guo Pu, Chinese historian, poet and writer (d. 324) * Wang Dao, Chinese politician and statesman (d. 339) * Yuan of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 323) Deaths ------ * Bahram I, king of the Sassanid Empire * Marcus Annius Florianus, Roman emperor * Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Roman Emperor * Tiberius Julius Synges, Roman client king

276

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/276

Year **212** (**CCXII**) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Asper and Camilius** (or, less frequently, **year 965 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 212 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. **212** (CCXII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 212th year of the Common Era (CE) and *Anno Domini* (AD) designations, the 212th year of the 1st millennium, the 12th year of the 3rd century, and the 3rd year of the 210s decade. As of the start of 212, the Gregorian calendar was in agreement with the Julian calendar, which was the dominant calendar of the time. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * The edict of Emperor Caracalla (*Constitutio Antoniniana*) extends Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, with the exception of a limited group that may include Egyptians. The Jewish people are among those who receive citizenship. All free women in the Empire are given the same rights as Roman women. * Roman jurist Papinian, one of the famous jurists who flourished during the reign of the late emperor Septimius Severus, refuses to write a legal defence for the murder of Caracalla's brother, Publius Septimius Geta. He is beheaded in Rome, in Caracalla's presence. * Caracalla quiets the objections of the Roman army to Geta's murder, by huge donations. * Construction begins on the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. * Edessa in Mesopotamia becomes a Roman province. Deaths ------ * Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor, daughter of Marcus Aurelius (b. 160) * Gao You, Chinese scholar, historian, politician and writer (b 168) * Ma Teng (or **Shoucheng**), Chinese general and warlord * Papinian, Roman jurist and praetorian prefect (b. 142) * Serenus Sammonicus, Roman poet and physician * Xun Yu, Chinese politician and adviser (b. 163) * Zhang Hong, Chinese official and politician (b. 153)

212

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/212

Year **216** (**CCXVI**) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Anullinus** (or, less frequently, **year 969 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 216 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are completed with public baths (*Thermae*), reading rooms, auditoriums, running tracks, and public gardens that cover 20 acres. * Emperor Caracalla tricks the Parthians by accepting a marriage proposal. He slaughters his bride and the wedding guests after the celebrations. * Caracalla provokes a war with Artabanus V (of Parthia) to imitate his idol Alexander the Great. He crosses the Tigris, destroys towns and spoils the tombs of Arbela. The Roman army annexes Armenia. * The basilica of Leptis Magna, ordered by Septimius Severus, is completed. #### China * Chinese warlord Cao Cao is made a vassal and ruler of Wei (**Former Wei**) by Emperor Xian, the last ruler of the Han Dynasty. ### By topic #### Religion * Mithraism, which had begun in Persia, is on course to be adopted by many Roman soldiers serving in Asia. Births ------ * Mani, prophet and founder of Manichaeism (d. 274) Deaths ------ * Clement of Alexandria, Greek theologian (approximate date) * Cui Yan (or **Jigui**), Chinese official and politician (b. 165) * Huo Jun (or **Zhongmiao**), Chinese general and official * Mao Jie (or **Xiaoxian**), Chinese official and politician * Narcissus of Jerusalem, patriarch of Jerusalem * Pantaenus, Greek theologian (approximate date) * Zhang Lu, Chinese warlord and religious leader

216

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/216

Year **244 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Atticus and Blaesus** (or, less frequently, **year 510 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 244 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Agis IV succeeds his father, Eudamidas II, as King of Sparta. * The war in Asia Minor and the Aegean Sea intensifies as the Achaean League allies itself to Ptolemy III Euergetes of Egypt, while Seleucus II secures two allies in the Black Sea region. Ptolemy III's armies reach as far as Bactria and the borders of India in their attacks on the Seleucid Empire. * By defeating the Egyptian fleet at Andros, Antigonus II is able to maintain his control over the Aegean Sea. #### Carthage * Hamilcar Barca transfers his army to the slopes of Mount Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from which he is able to lend support to the besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani). #### China * The Qin general Meng Ao annexes 13 cities from the State of Han. * The Qin envoy Gan Luo persuades King Daoxiang of Zhao to cede five cities. * The State of Zhao annexes dozens of cities from the State of Yan. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Eudamidas II, king of Sparta

244 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/244_BC

Year **227 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Flaccus and Regulus** (or, less frequently, **year 527 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 227 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Illyria * Queen Teuta of Illyria finally surrenders to Roman forces and is forced by the Romans to accept an ignominious peace. The Romans allow her to continue her reign but restrict her to a narrow region around the Illyrian capital, Shkodra, deprive her of all her other territory, and forbid her to sail an armed ship below Lissus just south of the capital. They also require her to pay an annual tribute and to acknowledge the final authority of Rome. #### Greece * The Macedonian regent, Antigonus III, marries the former king Demetrius II's widow, Phthia, and assumes the crown thus deposing the young Philip V. * The Spartan King Cleomenes III imposes reforms on his kingdom which include the cancelling of debts, providing land for 4,000 citizens, and restoring the training of youth in the martial arts. The Ephorate, five elected magistrates who, with the King, form the main executive body of the state, is abolished (four of the five ephors being executed); the powers of the Gerousia, the oligarchic council of elders, is curtailed; and the *patronomoi* (the board of six elders) is introduced. Cleomenes' changes are designed to make the monarchy supreme and re-create a society of aristocrats, while neglecting Sparta's helots (serfs) and perioikoi (free but non-citizen inhabitants). Eighty opponents of the reforms are exiled, while his brother Eucleidas is installed as co-ruler in the place of the murdered Archidamus V. * Cleomenes III defeats the Achaeans under Aratus of Sicyon at Mount Lycaeum and at Ladoceia near Megalopolis. #### Roman Republic * Sardinia and Corsica are made a combined province. Rome appoints, and in the future annually elects, two praetors (with autocratic consular powers) for this province and for Sicily. * Gaius Flaminius becomes Rome's first governor of Sicily. #### Seleucid Empire * Antiochus Hierax tries to raise revolts against his brother Seleucus II in Syria and the east of the Seleucid kingdom. However, he is captured and exiled to Thrace, where he lives as a virtual prisoner. #### China * The Qin generals Wang Jian, Li Xin and Wang Ben invade the State of Yan in vengeance for an assassination attempt against the king of Qin, Ying Zheng, that had been organized by Crown Prince Dan. Births ------ * Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, Roman consul and general Deaths ------ * Huan Yi, Chinese general of the Qin State (Warring States Period) * Jing Ke, Chinese retainer and assassin of the Yan State * Lydiadas of Megalopolis, Greek tyrant and general (*strategos*)

227 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/227_BC

Year **22 BC** was either a common year starting on Sunday, Monday or Tuesday or a leap year starting on Sunday or Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Saturday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Arruntius** (or, less frequently, **year 732 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 22 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Aemilius Lepidus Paullus and Lucius Munatius Plancus are Censors. * The Roman governor of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, marches up the Nile with legions XXII *Deiotariana* and III *Cyrenaica*, and destroys the Nubian capital of Napata. * King Artaxias II returns, with the support of the Parthians, to Armenia and claims the throne. Artavasdes I escapes to Rome, where Caesar Augustus receives him. Deaths ------ * Lucius Licinius Varro Murena, Roman politician

22 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22_BC

Year **219 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Paullus and Salinator** (or, less frequently, **year 535 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 219 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * Following the defection of one of Ptolemy IV's leading commanders, Egypt's Syrian territories are seriously threatened by Antiochus III, thus initiating the Fourth Syrian War. When the Seleucid ruler captures the important eastern Mediterranean sea ports of Seleucia-in-Pieria, Tyre, and Ptolemais, Ptolemy IV's advisor, Sosibius, and the Ptolemaic court enter into delaying negotiations with the enemy, while the Ptolemaic army is reorganized and intensively drilled. * The former King of Sparta, Cleomenes III, escapes from his Egyptian prison and, after failing to raise a revolt in Alexandria, takes his own life. #### Roman Republic * The Romans extend their area of domination around the head of the Adriatic Sea as far as the peninsula of Histria by the conquest of peoples who dwell to the east of the Veneti. Thus, with the exception of Liguria and the upper valley of the Po River, all Italy south of the Alps is brought within the Roman sphere. #### Carthage * Hannibal lays siege to Saguntum thus initiating the Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome. Saguntum is an independent Iberian Peninsula city south of the Ebro River. In the treaty between Rome and Carthage concluded in 226 BC, the Ebro had been set as the northern limit of Carthaginian influence in the Iberian Peninsula. Saguntum is south of the Ebro, but the Romans have "friendship" with the city and regard the Carthaginian attack on it as an act of war. The siege of Saguntum lasts eight months, and in it Hannibal is severely wounded. The Romans, who send envoys to Carthage in protest, demand the surrender of Hannibal. #### Greece * The Roman Senate sends the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus to Illyria with an army. On discovering Rome's intent, the Illyrian leader Demetrius of Pharos puts to death those Illyrians who oppose his rule, fortifies Dimale and goes to Pharos. After a seven-day siege by the Roman fleet under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, Dimale is taken by direct assault. From Dimale, the Roman navy heads to Pharos, where the Roman forces rout the Illyrians. Demetrius flees to Macedonia, where he becomes a trusted councilor at the court of King Philip V. * The Cretan city of Kydonia joins the Aetolian alliance. #### China * Qin Shi Huang orders his generals to capture present-day Guangdong and Guangxi. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Cleomenes III, Spartan king from 235 BC to 222 BC, who reorganized Sparta's political structure and struggled unsuccessfully to destroy the Achaean League.

219 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/219_BC

Year **252 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Cotta and Geminus** (or, less frequently, **year 502 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 252 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Abantidas, the tyrant of Sicyon, is murdered by his enemies and is succeeded by his father, Paseas. Births ------ * Philopoemen, Greek general and statesman (d. 183 BC) Deaths ------ * Abantidas, tyrant of Sicyon (assassinated)

252 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/252_BC

Year **258 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Calatinus and Peterculus** (or, less frequently, **year 496 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 258 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * The Romans are able to regain the initiative in Sicily against Carthage by retaking Enna and Camarina. In central Sicily, they take the town of Mytistraton, which they have attacked twice previously. The Romans also move in the north by marching across the northern coast toward Panormus, but are not able to take the city due to the city's heavily fortified walls. * Gaius Duilius Nepos, the Roman commander who has won a major naval victory over the Carthaginians is made censor with Lucius Cornelius Scipio. The election of a novus homo (i.e. the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or be elected as consul) to the censorship is a very rare honor. #### Egypt * Ptolemy II loses control of the territory of Cyrenaica. * Erasistratus of Ceos founds a medical school at Alexandria. #### Greece * The forces of the Macedonian King Antigonus II and the Seleucid King Antiochus II win a naval victory at Cos against their common enemy, Ptolemy II. This victory secures Antigonus control over the Aegean Sea and the League of the Islanders. It also diminishes Ptolemaic naval power. #### China * The State of Qin besieges Handan, the capital of the State of Zhou, but the Qin army under Wang Ling sustains heavy casualties. Wang Ling is then replaced by Wang He. * The merchant Lu Buwei rescues the Qin prince Ying Yiren, a hostage at the Zhao court, from Handan. Ying Yiren will eventually become King Zhuangxiang of Qin. #### Vietnam * According to legend, the Hồng Bàng dynasty comes to an end. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

258 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/258_BC

Year **260 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Asina and Duilius** (or, less frequently, **year 494 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 260 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Sicily * The Roman advance continues westward from Agrigentum with their forces relieving the besieged cities of Segesta and Macella. These cities have sided with the Roman cause, and have come under Carthaginian attack for doing so. * Hannibal Gisco returns to fight in Sicily as the admiral in charge of the Carthaginian fleet in the Strait of Messina. With the Romans about to launch their first ever navy, Carthage is determined that this innovation be thwarted. Gisco defeats part of the Roman fleet and captures the Roman consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina in an encounter near Lipari; the consul's nickname Asina (which means *donkey*) is earned in this encounter. However, this Carthaginian victory is of limited practical value as the bulk of the Roman fleet continues to manoeuvre in the surrounding waters. * Confident in Carthage's superiority at sea, Hannibal Gisco deploys his ships for the Battle of Mylae in the traditional long line arrangement. Although inexperienced in sea battles, the Romans, led by consul Gaius Duilius Nepos, heavily defeat the Carthaginian fleet, mainly due to the innovative use of land tactics in naval warfare (including the use of the grappling irons and the corvus boarding bridge). * Having lost the confidence of his peers, Hannibal Gisco is subsequently executed for incompetence shortly afterwards, together with other defeated Punic generals. * In the north of Sicily, the Romans, with their northern sea flank secured by their naval victory in the Battle of Mylae, advance toward Thermae. They are defeated there by the Carthaginians under Hamilcar. #### Egypt * Callimachus of Cyrene, learned poet and grammarian, becomes chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria. #### China * Battle of Changping between the state of Qin and state of Zhao: * Frustrated with the stalemate and encouraged by Qin spies, King Xiaocheng of Zhao replaces general Lian Po with the less cautious Zhao Kuo. Hearing of this, King Zhaoxiang of Qin secretly sends the famous general Bai Qi to take control of the Qin army. * The Qin army under Bai Qi destroys the army of Zhao, establishing Qin's military superiority over all other Chinese states during the Warring States period. The battle takes place near modern-day Gaoping in Shanxi and hundreds of thousands of soldiers from Zhao are executed after the battle. Births ------ * Zheng, who will later become king of the State of Qin, and then later the First Emperor of China (d. 210 BC) Deaths ------ * Hannibal Gisco, Carthaginian military commander in charge of both land armies and naval fleets (b. c. 300 BC) * Orontes III, king of Armenia and Sophene (modern-day Turkey) * Timocharis of Alexandria, Greek astronomer and philosopher * Zhao Kuo, Chinese general of the State of Zhao

260 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/260_BC

Year **221 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Asina and Rufus/Lepidus** (or, less frequently, **year 533 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 221 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Carthage * The Carthaginian general Hasdrubal is murdered by a Celtic assassin while campaigning to increase the Carthaginian hold on Spain. Following the assassination of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, the son of the Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, is proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and his appointment is confirmed by the Carthaginian government. * Hannibal immediately moves to consolidate Carthage's control of Spain. He marries a Spanish princess, Imilce, then begins to conquer various Spanish tribes. He fights against the Olcades and captures their capital, Althaea; quells the Vaccaei in the northwest; and, making the seaport of Cartagena (Carthago Nova, the capital of Carthaginian Spain) his base, wins a resounding victory over the Carpetani in the region of the Tagus River. #### Egypt * Egypt's Ptolemy III dies and is succeeded by his son, Ptolemy IV. Sosibius is appointed by Ptolemy IV as his chief minister and immediately has a great influence over the young king, directing all of the affairs of state. * At Sosibius' direction, Ptolemy IV puts to death in succession his uncle, Lysimachus, his brother Magas, and his mother Berenice II. * King Cleomenes III of Sparta, who is in exile in Egypt, is imprisoned by Ptolemy IV on a charge of conspiracy. #### Seleucid Empire * The satrap of Media, Molon, and his brother, Alexander, revolt against Antiochus III, primarily due to their hatred towards Hermeias, Antiochus' chief minister. Molon is able to become master of the Seleucid domains to the east of the Tigris. He is stopped by Antiochus III's forces in his attempts to pass that river. Xenoetas, one of Antiochus' generals, is sent against Molon with a large force, but is surprised by Molon's forces and his whole army is cut to pieces and Xenoetas is killed. The rebel satrap now crosses the Tigris, and makes himself master of the city of Seleucia on the Tigris, together with the whole of Babylonia and Mesopotamia. #### Greece * Antigonus III dies during a battle against the Illyrians and is succeeded by his young cousin Philip V as King of Macedonia. #### Roman Republic * Gaius Flaminius builds a second race track for Rome, the Circus Flaminius. #### China * The state of Qi – by now the only other independent state in China –, is invaded by the Qin generals Wang Ben, Li Xin and Meng Tian and surrenders after offering minimal resistance. Ying Zheng, the king of Qin unifies China and proclaims himself the First Emperor, as he is the first Chinese sovereign able to rule the whole country, thus ending the Warring States period. He is known by historians as Qin Shi Huang. * The Chinese Bronze Age ends (approximate date). Births ------ * Liu Fei, Chinese prince and proclaimed king of the former Qi State (d. 189 BC) Deaths ------ * Antigonus III Doson, king of Macedon from 227 BC (b. 263 BC) * Berenice II, queen of Egypt, daughter of Magas, king of Cyrenaica (in modern Libya), whose marriage to Ptolemy III Euergetes has reunited her country with Egypt (b. c. 267 BC) * Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general and son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (assassinated) (b. c. 270 BC) * Lucius Caecilius Metellus, Roman consul and general during the First Punic War (b. c. 290 BC) * Ptolemy III, king of Egypt, who has reunited Egypt and Cyrenaica and successfully waged the Third Syrian War against the Seleucid Empire * Xenoetas, Seleucid general (killed during a revolt against Antiochus III)

221 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/221_BC

Year **301** (**CCCI**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Postumius and Nepotianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1054 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 301 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Caesar Galerius begins a major war against the Carpi and Bastarnae and wins the first of several victories. * September: Emperor Diocletian issues a reform that revalues the Roman currency. * November: Diocletian issues his Edict on Maximum Prices, which, rather than halting rampant inflation, causes widespread panic and an increase in inflation. The measure is quickly abandoned. #### Armenia * King Tiridates III (**the Great**) proclaims Christianity as the official state religion, making Armenia the first nation to adopt Christianity as its official religion (traditional date). Construction of the original Etchmiadzin Cathedral by Gregory the Illuminator begins. #### Europe * September 3 – The republic of San Marino is established (approximate date). #### Asia * February 3 – May 30 – Sima Lun briefly usurps the Jin Dynasty. Births ------ * Xie Ai, Chinese general of the Former Liang state (d. 354) Deaths ------ * June 5 – Sima Lun, Chinese usurper (forced suicide) * Sun Xiu (or **Junzhong**), Chinese official and politician

301

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301

Year **304 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Sophus and Saverrio** (or, less frequently, **year 450 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 304 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Demetrius shows ingenuity in devising a new siege engine: a wheeled siege tower named Helepolis (or "Taker of Cities"), which stands 40 meters tall and 20 meters wide and weighs 180 tons. * The Siege of Rhodes ends after a year. * Demetrius Poliorcetes and the Rhodians come to a truce, with the agreement that the city should be autonomous, should keep its own revenue and that the Rhodians should be allies of Antigonus unless he is at war with Ptolemy. * Antigonus then concludes a peace treaty and an alliance with the island state, guaranteeing it autonomy and neutrality in his conflicts with Ptolemy. * Cassander invades Attica and besieges Athens. He captures the island of Salamis off the coast of Athens. * Demetrius Poliorcetes invades mainland Greece for Asia-Minor, drives Cassander out of central Greece and liberates Athens. In return, the Athenians bestow on him a new religious honour, synnaos (meaning "having the same temple") of the temple of the goddess Athena. #### Roman Republic * The second Samnite war formally ends with a peace agreement in which the Samnites obtain peace on terms that are severe but not as crushing as those agreed by the Romans with the Etruscans four years earlier. Under the peace, Rome gains no territory, but the Samnites renounce their hegemony over Campania. Rome is also successful in ending the revolts amongst the tribes surrounding Roman territory. #### Sicily * The tyrant Agathocles takes on the title of King of Sicily. He extends his influence into southern Italy and the Adriatic. #### India * The Mauryan emperor Chandragupta defeats Seleucus I Nicator as he tries to invade India. Births ------ * Ashoka, Indian emperor and ruler of the Maurya Empire in present-day Eastern India 273–232 BC (d. 232 BC) * Erasistratus, Greek anatomist and physician (approximate date) Deaths ------ * In popular culture ------------------ * 450 *Ab urbe condita* is the starting year for the *Imperator: Rome* grand strategy computer game.

304 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/304_BC

Year **264** (**CCLXIV**) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Saturninus** (or, less frequently, **year 1017 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 264 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Asia * March 1–3 – Zhong Hui's Rebellion in China is quelled. * Sima Zhao, regent of the Chinese state of Cao Wei, styles himself the "King of Jin", the penultimate step before usurpation. * Sun Hao succeeds Sun Xiu as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu. Births ------ Deaths ------ * March 3 + Jiang Wei (or **Boyue**), Chinese general and regent (b. 202) + Zhang Yi (or **Bogong**), Chinese general and politician + Zhong Hui (or **Shiji**), Chinese general and politician (b. 225) * March 22 – Dionysius the Great, patriarch of Alexandria * September 3 – Sun Xiu (**Jing of Wu**), Chinese emperor (b. 235) * Deng Ai (or **Shizai**), Chinese general and politician (b. 197) * Guo (or **Mingyuan**), Chinese empress of the Cao Wei state * Liao Hua (or **Yuanjian**), Chinese general and politician * Liu Xuan, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state (b. 224) * Puyang Xing (or **Ziyuan**), Chinese official and chancellor * Zong Yu (or **Deyan**), Chinese general and politician

264

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/264

Year **233** (**CCXXXIII**) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Claudius and Paternus** (or, less frequently, **year 986 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 233 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Alexander Severus celebrates a triumph in Rome to observe his "victory" the previous year over the Persians (in reality, Severus Alexander advanced towards Ctesiphon in 233, but as corroborated by Herodian, his armies suffered a humiliating defeat against Ardashir I). He is soon summoned to the Rhine frontier, where the Alamanni invade what is now modern-day Swabia. German tribes destroy Roman forts, and plunder the countryside at the *Limes Germanicus*. Births ------ * Chen Shou, Chinese historian and writer of the *Records of the Three Kingdoms* (d. 297) Deaths ------ * June 13 – Cao Rui, Chinese imperial prince of the Cao Wei state * Liu Ji, Chinese official and politician of the Eastern Wu state (b. 185) * Yu Fan, Chinese official and politician of the Eastern Wu state (b. 164)

233

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/233

Year **232** (**CCXXXII**) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Lupus and Maximus** (or, less frequently, **year 985 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 232 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Roman–Persian Wars: Emperor Alexander Severus launches a three-pronged counterattack against the Persian forces of King Ardashir I, who have invaded Mesopotamia. However, the Roman army advancing through Armenia is halted. Alexander gives the order to march to the capital at Ctesiphon, but the Romans are defeated, and withdraw to Syria. The result is an acceptance of the *status quo*, and after heavy losses on both sides, a truce is signed. ### By topic #### Religion * Relics of St. Thomas are brought to Edessa from India. * Origen founds a school of Christian theology in Palestine. * Pope Heraclas of Alexandria is the first Bishop of Alexandria to use the appellation of "Pope". Births ------ * August 19 – Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (d. 282) * Cao Fang, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (d. 274) * Sun Chen (or **Zitong**), Chinese general and regent (d. 259) * Zhang Hua, Chinese official, scholar and poet (d. 300) Deaths ------ * January 30 – Hua Xin, Chinese official and politician (b. 157) * October 22 – Demetrius I, patriarch of Alexandria (b. 127) * December 27 – Cao Zhi, Chinese prince and poet (b. 192) * Cao Hong, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state * Sun Lü, Chinese general of the Cao Wei state * Tiberius Julius Sauromates III, Roman client king

232

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/232

Year **237 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Caudinus and Flaccus** (or, less frequently, **year 517 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 237 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Carthage * Hamilcar Barca's success in defeating the mercenaries results in a growth in his strength as leader of Carthage's popular party and support for his proposed invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. However, as spokesman for the landed nobility, Hanno opposes the policy of foreign conquest pursued by Hamilcar Barca. * Nevertheless, Hamilcar Barca leads a Carthaginian army in an invasion of the Iberian Peninsula with the aim of building a base from which war with Rome can be renewed. By skillful generalship and able diplomacy, Hamilcar extends Carthaginian dominion over many Spanish tribes. #### China * Lü Buwei is deposed as the Prime Minister of Qin. * The Qin official and philosopher Li Si persuades the king, Ying Zheng, not to expel foreign officers with his "Petition against the Expulsion of Guest Officers" (*Jianzhuke Shu*). Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Xun Zi, Confucian philosopher who has contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought (b. c. 310 BC)

237 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/237_BC

Year **307 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Caecus and Violens** (or, less frequently, **year 447 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 307 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Babylonia * Antigonus makes peace with Seleucus, who is left free to consolidate his kingdom. * Antigonus founds the city of Antigonia (Syria) #### Greece * The governor (despot) of Athens for 10 years and supporter of Cassander, Demetrius Phalereus, is obliged to flee from Athens on the approach of the Macedonian prince, Demetrius Poliorcetes. He settles in Alexandria * Demetrius Poliorcetes re-establishes the old Athenian constitution. The grateful Athenians honour Antigonus and Demetrius as divine saviours (*theoi soteres*). * Upon becoming ruler of Epirus, Pyrrhus allies himself with his brother-in-law, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus. #### Sicily * The tyrant of Syracuse, Agathocles is forced to return to Syracuse to deal with growing unrest in his Sicilian dominions. Those of Agathocles' army that remain behind in Carthage are soon destroyed. * The Carthaginian general Hamilcar fails to take Syracuse and is captured and killed. * The city of Segesta in Sicily is destroyed by Agathocles. #### China * The Chinese King Wuling of Zhao reforms the military of the State of Zhao by putting more emphasis on cavalry over charioteers. ### By topic #### Philosophy * Epicureanism, a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus, is founded (approximate date). Births ------ Deaths ------

307 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/307_BC

Year **265** (**CCLXV**) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Valerianus and Lucillus** (or, less frequently, **year 1018 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 265 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Gallienus tries twice to crush the usurper Postumus, but on the first occasion Aureolus, commander of the elite cavalry, carelessly lets him escape. The second time, Gallienus sustains an arrow wound and has to break off his siege of a Gallic town where Postumus has holed up. He makes no other serious attempt to overcome his rival, instead devoting his attention to the political and military problems in the Danube and eastern parts of the Roman Empire. * Postumus makes no move to march on Rome and claim his territory south of Gaul. * Gallienus gives the order to fortify Milan and Verona. * Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans. * A general of Gallienus' army, Victorinus, defects to Postumus. #### China * Sima Zhao, who had been the regent and de facto primary authority of the state of Cao Wei for little over 10 years by this point, passes away, leaving his authority to his eldest son, Sima Yan, who will go on to disestablish the state of Cao Wei in 266, founding the Jin dynasty. Births ------ * Eusebius of Caesarea, Greek historian (approximate date) Deaths ------ * September 6 – Sima Zhao, Chinese general and politician (b. 211) * Ma Jun, Chinese engineer and inventor of the south-pointing chariot * Zhu (or **Jing**), Chinese empress of the Eastern Wu state

265

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/265

Year **243 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Fundulus and Galus** (or, less frequently, **year 511 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 243 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * Ptolemy III returns from Syria due to a revolt in Egypt. As a result, Seleucus II is able to regain control of his kingdom with the Egyptians being pushed out of Mesopotamia and part of Northern Syria. * Ptolemy III returns from his conquests of Seleucid territory with a large amount of treasure and works of art, including many statues of Egyptian gods carried off to Persia by Cambyses. He restores the statues to the Egyptian temples and earns the title of Euergetes ("Benefactor"). #### Greece * Without a declaration of hostilities, Greek statesman, Aratus of Sicyon, who has gradually built up the Achaean League into a major power in Greece, makes a surprise attack on Corinth and forces the withdrawal of the Macedonian occupation troops. Megara, Troezen, and Epidaurus also desert the Macedonian King Antigonus II. * Drawing upon the tradition of the Spartan lawgiver, Lycurgus, the young Eurypontid king of Sparta, Agis IV, seeks to reform a system that distributes the land and wealth unequally and burden the poor with debt. He proposes the cancellation of debts and the division of the Spartan homeland into separate lots for each of its citizens. Full citizenship is to be extended to many perioeci (voteless freemen) and foreigners. In addition to pursuing these reforms, Agis seeks the restoration of the Lycurgan system of military training. Agis is supported by his wealthy mother and grandmother (who surrender their property), by his uncle Agesilaus, and by Lysander, who is an ephor (magistrate with the duty of limiting the power of the king). #### China * The Qin general Meng Ao sacks the Wei cities of Shizhang and Yougui. * The Zhao general Li Mu takes the cities of Wusui and Fancheng from the State of Yan. Births ------ * Mago Barca, Carthaginian general and brother of Hannibal (d. 203 BC) * Prusias I Cholus (**the Lame**), king of Bithynia (approximate date) * Seleucus III Ceraunus, king of the Seleucid Kingdom (d. 223 BC) Deaths ------ * Persaeus, Greek Stoic philosopher and friend of Zeno of Citium * Xinling, Chinese statesman and general (Warring States Period)

243 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/243_BC

Year **230** (**CCXXX**) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Agricola and Clementinus** (or, less frequently, **year 983 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 230 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Alexander Severus decides that Thessaly should be a separate province from Macedonia. He increases taxes, in order to maintain the war against the Sassanids, and strengthen the defenses of the Roman Empire. #### Persian Empire * King Ardashir I of the Persian Empire invades the Roman province of Mesopotamia, and unsuccessfully besieges the fortress town of Nisibis (Turkey). His army threatens the border outposts of Syria and Cappadocia. * Alexander Severus assembles the Roman army, and establishes his headquarters at Antioch. He attempts a diplomatic solution, but the Persians decline and choose war. #### Korea * Jobun becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. ### By topic #### Religion * July 21 – Pope Pontian succeeds Pope Urban I, as the 18th pope of Rome. * Patriarch Castinus succeeds Ciriacus I as patriarch Constantinople. * Seventy bishops hold the council of the Christian Church of Africa. Births ------ * Gaius Vibius Volusianus, Roman emperor (d. 253) * Marcus Aurelius Carus, Roman emperor (d. 283) Deaths ------ * May 23 – Urban I, bishop of Rome (b. 175) * July 9 – Bian, Chinese empress dowager (b. 159) * Go Uru, Korean prime minister * Liang Xi, Chinese official and politician * Marius Maximus, Roman consul and biographer * Naehae of Silla, Korean ruler * Wu Zhi, Chinese official and general (b. 177) * Zhang Wen, Chinese official and politician (b. 193) * Zhang Yi, Chinese official and politician (b. 167) * Zhong Yao, Chinese official and calligrapher (b. 151)

230

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/230

Year **274 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Dentatus and Merenda** (or, less frequently, **year 480 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 274 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Pyrrhus returns from Italy and Sicily and invades Macedonia defeating Antigonus II Gonatas at the Battle of the Aous and conquering Upper Macedonia and Thessaly while Antigonus holds onto the coastal Macedonian towns. Antigonus' troops desert him and Pyrrhus is declared King of Macedonia. #### Roman Republic * The Romans under Manius Curius Dentatus conquer the Lucanians. #### Egypt * Magas of Cyrene marries Apama, the daughter of Antiochus and uses his marital alliance to foment a pact to invade Egypt. He opens hostilities against his half brother Ptolemy II, by declaring his province of Cyrenaica to be independent and then attacks Egypt from the west as Antiochus I takes the Egyptian controlled areas in coastal Syria and southern Anatolia, after which he attacks Palestine. * Magas has to stop his advance against Ptolemy II due to an internal revolt by the Libyan Marmaridae nomads. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

274 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/274_BC

Year **236 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Caudinus and Varus** (or, less frequently, **year 518 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 236 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Asia Minor * Antiochus Hierax, supported by his mother Laodice I, allies himself with the Galatians (Celts) and two other states that are traditional foes of the Seleucid kingdom. With the aid of these forces, he inflicts a crushing defeat on his older brother Seleucus II's army at Ancyra in Anatolia. Seleucus leaves the country beyond the Taurus Mountains to his brother and the other powers of the peninsula. #### Egypt * Eratosthenes is appointed by King Ptolemy III Euergetes as head and third librarian of the Alexandrian library. #### China * King Ying Zheng of the State of Qin begins a series of campaigns against the State of Zhao that will end with Zhao's conquest in 228 BC. The Qin generals Huan Yi and Wang Jian seize nine cities in the Yecheng region. #### Sri Lanka * Buddhism is introduced to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, a monk acting on behalf of the late Ashoka. Births ------ * Scipio Africanus, Roman general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic (approximate date) (d. 183 BC) Deaths ------ *

236 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/236_BC

Year **404 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Tribunate of Volusus, Cossus, Fidenas, Ambustus, Maluginensis and Rutilus** (or, less frequently, **year 350 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 404 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * The Athenian leader Cleophon continues to urge resistance against the Peloponnesians, but the situation becomes desperate and he is arrested, condemned to death and executed. * April 25 – Athens, full of refugees and weakened by plague and hunger, capitulates and the Peloponnesian War ends. * Theramenes secures terms that save the city of Athens from destruction. The Spartans allow Athens to retain its independence. However, Athens loses all its foreign possessions and what is left of its fleet and is required to become an ally of Sparta. The Long Walls around Athens are pulled down. Greek towns across the Aegean Sea in Ionia are again the subjects of the Persian Empire. * The Spartan general, Lysander, puts in place a puppet government in Athens with the establishment of the oligarchy of the "Thirty Tyrants" under Critias and including Theramenes as a leading member. This government executes a number of citizens and deprives all but a few of their rights. * Many of Athens' former allies are now ruled by boards of ten (decarchy), often reinforced with garrisons under a Spartan commander (Harmost). * The Athenian general Thrasybulus is exiled by the Thirty (the oligarchy of Athens), and he retires to Thebes. * A split develops between Theramenes and Critias who has Theramenes killed (by drinking poison) on charges of treason. * Emerging after the Spartan victory at Aegospotami, the former Athenian leader, Alcibiades, takes refuge in Phrygia in northwestern Asia Minor with the Persian satrap, Pharnabazus, and seeks their assistance for the Athenians. The Spartans discover his plans and arrange with Pharnabazus to have him assassinated. * Lysander sails to Samos and conquers it for Sparta. #### Egypt * Amyrtaeus of Sais successfully leads a revolt against the Persian Empire's control of the Egyptian delta. He becomes the first (and only) pharaoh of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty. #### Persian Empire * The Persian King Darius II dies of an illness in Babylon. He is succeeded by his son Artaxerxes II (Memnon—'the Mindful'). * Darius II's younger son, Cyrus, is accused by Tissaphernes, the satrap of Caria, of plotting his brother Artaxerxes II's murder. On the intercession of Artaxerxes II and Cyrus's mother, Parysatis, however, Cyrus is pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Alcibiades, Athenian statesman (b. c. 450 BC) * Cleophon, Athenian politician and demagogue * Darius II Ochus, King of the Persian Empire * Theramenes, Athenian statesman

404 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/404_BC

Year **277 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Rufinus and Brutus** (or, less frequently, **year 477 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 277 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Antigonus crosses the Hellespont and defeats the Celts under the command of Cerethrius at the Battle of Lysimachia near Lysimachia at the neck of the Thracian Chersonese. After this success, he is acknowledged by the Macedonians as their king. #### Sicily * Pyrrhus captures Eryx, the strongest Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. This prompts the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities in Sicily to defect to Pyrrhus. Births ------ * Fan Zeng, Chinese adviser during the Chu-Han Contention (d. 204 BC) Deaths ------ * Sosthenes, Macedonian general and king of the Antipatrid Dynasty

277 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/277_BC

Year **238 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Gracchus and Falto** (or, less frequently, **year 516 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 238 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Carthage * Hamilcar Barca strikes at the supply lines of the mercenary army besieging Carthage, forcing them to cease the siege of the city. He then fights a series of running engagements with the mercenary armies, keeping them off balance. Hamilcar manages to force the mercenary armies into a box canyon in the Battle of "The Saw". The mercenaries are besieged in the canyon. * The mercenary army, under the leadership of Spendius, attempts to fight its way out of the siege but is totally defeated by the Carthaginian forces led by Hamilcar Barca. After the battle, Hamilcar executes some 40,000 rebel mercenaries. * Hamilcar's armies capture a number of rebel Libyan cities. The Libyan settlements that have rebelled surrender to Carthage, with the exception of Utica and Hippacritae. * Hamilcar and another Carthaginian general, Hannibal, besiege Mathos' mercenary army at Tunis and crucify the captured mercenary leaders in sight of the mercenary battlements. * Mathos exploits a weakness in Hannibal's defenses and launches an attack against his army, capturing Hannibal and several other high ranking Carthaginians. The mercenaries then crucify the captured Carthaginian leaders. * Carthaginian reinforcements led by Hanno the Great join the battle. They defeat Mathos' mercenary forces and Mathos is captured. * The Carthaginian armies besiege and capture Utica and Hippacritae. This ends the Carthaginian civil war. * The Romans declare war on the Carthaginians over which state controls Sardinia. However, Carthage defers to Rome rather than enter yet another war and gives up any claim to Sardinia. #### Egypt * The Decree of Canopus, also called "Table of Tanis", is a memorial stone promulgated by an assemblage of priests in honour of Ptolemy III Euergetes and his consort Berenice. The decree, written in Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphs is an ancient bilingual Egyptian decree that provides a key for deciphering hieroglyphic and the simpler demotic scripts. #### Persia * Arsaces, chief of an Iranian nomad tribe, the Parni, invades and conquers Parthia killing, in the process, the local ruler Andragoras. **Asia Minor** * A joint Seleucid-Galatian invasion of Pergamon is defeated at the Battle of Aphrodisium #### China * Ying Zheng, having reached adulthood, celebrates his capping ceremony as the king of Qin. * Ying Zheng and Prime Minister Lü Buwei crush the rebellion of Lao Ai. Lao Ai is executed. Births ------ * Masinissa, king of Numidia (approximate date) * Philip V, king (basileus) of Macedonia (d. 179 BC) Deaths ------ * Andragoras, Seleucid governor (satrap) of Parthia * Autaritus, Gallic mercenary leader * Chunshen, Chinese nobleman * Hannibal, Carthaginian general * Kaolie of Chu, Chinese king of the Chu State * Lao Ai, Chinese eunuch and official * Xun Zi, Chinese philosopher (approximate date)

238 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/238_BC

Year **402** (**CDII**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Arcadius and Honorius** (or, less frequently, **year 1155 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 402 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * The Visigoths advance on Mediolanum (modern Milan) and besiege Asti in Liguria. King Alaric I sends envoys to negotiate a peace, but the Roman government refuses to make deals with "barbarians." * April 6 – Battle of Pollentia: Stilicho recalls troops from Britain and the Rhine frontier to defend Italy. He decides to attack the Goths on Easter Sunday, and manages to capture Alaric's wife and children. * Emperors Arcadius and his younger brother Honorius become Roman consuls. #### Asia * King Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo (Korea) defeats the forces of Later Yan, seizing some of their border fortresses. * The Avars, led by Shelun (Chö-louen), having defeated the Gaoju Dingling (Kao-kiu Ting-ling) near Kobbo, establish a nomadic empire that ranges from Mongolia to the Irtysh. * Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, makes a pilgrimage to India, initiating Sino-Indian relations. Stirred by his faith to Buddhism, he visits the sites of Siddhartha Gautama's life. * Silseong becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. ### By topic #### Religion * Jerome writes *"Apologiae contra Rufinum"* and *"Liber tertius seu ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini"*. * The Pure Land school of Buddhism founds a monastery upon the top of Mount Lushan. * Cynegius, acting for Emperor Arcadius at the insistence of Bishop Porphyry, orders the destruction of pagan temples in Gaza. Births ------ Deaths ------ * Empress Dowager Ding, mother of Murong Sheng * Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Roman consul and intellectual * Sima Yuanxian, regent during the Jin Dynasty (b. 382) * Tufa Lilugu, prince of the Xianbei state Southern Liang

402

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/402

Year **245** (**CCXLV**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Philippus and Titianus** (or, less frequently, **year 998 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 245 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Philip the Arab entrusts Trajan Decius with an important command on the Danube. * In Britain, many thousands of acres of modern-day Lincolnshire are inundated by a great flood. * The philosopher Plotinus goes to live in Rome. #### Asia * Lady Triệu, a Vietnamese warrior, begins her 3-year resistance against the invading Chinese. Births ------ * Iamblichus, Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Ammonius Saccas, Alexandrian-Greek philosopher (approximate date) * Lu Xun (or **Boyan**), Chinese general and statesman (b. 183) * Wu (or **Wu Xian**), Chinese empress of the Shu Han state * Wu Can (or **Kongxiu**), Chinese official and politician * Zhao Yan (or **Boran**), Chinese official and general (b. 171) * Zhang Xiu (or **Shusi**), Chinese general and statesman (b. 205)

245

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/245

Year **267 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Regulus and Libo** (or, less frequently, **year 487 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 267 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Macedonia's King Antigonus II Gonatas has to deal with a rebellion by an Athenian-led coalition of Spartans (led by King Areus I of Sparta), Athenians (led by Chremonides), Arcadians and Achaeans that tries to expel the Macedonian forces located in southern Greece. The rebellion has the support of Ptolemy II of Egypt. Births ------ * Berenice II, queen and co-regent of Egypt (or 266 BC) Deaths ------ * Devanampiya Tissa, ruler of Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka)

267 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/267_BC

Year **406** (**CDVI**) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Arcadius and Probus** (or, less frequently, **year 1159 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 406 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Radagaisus is forced to retreat into the hills of Fiesole. There he tries to escape, but is captured by the Romans. * August 23 – Radagaisus is executed; 12,000 "barbarians" are incorporated into the Roman army, or sold as slaves. * Autumn – The remaining Roman legions in Britain decide to mutiny. The usurper Marcus is proclaimed emperor. * The Vandals, led by Godigisel, are intercepted and defeated by the Franks under Marcomir. Godigisel is killed in battle and succeeded by his son Gunderic. * December 31 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz), beginning an invasion of Gaul (traditional date, this may have occurred in 405). #### Asia * Faxian, Chinese traveler, arrives in India. He visits the major seats of Buddhist learning (Udyana, Peshawar, and Taxila). * Hanzei succeeds his brother Richu, and becomes the 18th emperor of Japan. ### By topic #### Agriculture * Cultivation of rye, oats, hops, and spelt (a wheat used for livestock feed) is introduced in Europe by the native Vandals, Alans, and Sciri, who also introduce a heavy wheeled plow to be used for farming. #### Religion * Stained glass is used for the first time in churches in Rome. Births ------ * Attila the Hun, ruler of the Hunnic Empire (approximate date) (d. 453) * Shao Di, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 424) Deaths ------ * August 23 – Radagaisus, Gothic king * Alban of Mainz, priest and martyr (approximate date) * Godigisel, king of the Vandals * Gu Kaizhi, Chinese painter (b. c. 344) * Zhang Tianxi, ruler of Former Liang (b. 346)

406

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/406

The **240s** decade ran from January 1, 240, to December 31, 249. Events ------ ### 240 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * The Roman Empire is threatened on several fronts at the same time. Africa revolts and tribes in northwest Germania, under the name of the Franks, are raiding the Rhine frontier. ###### Persia * April 12 – Prince Shapur I becomes co-ruler of the Sasanian Empire with his father King Ardashir I. * Siege of Hatra: The Sasanians besiege the capital of the Kingdom of Hatra ruled by Sanatruq II. ###### India * Maharaja Sri-Gupta becomes ruler of the Gupta Empire (approximate date). #### By topic ###### Religion * Mani, a young mystic of Ctesiphon, proclaims himself a prophet at the court of Ardashir I. He preaches his doctrine, Manichaeism, throughout the Sassanid Empire. ### 241 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Winter – Emperor Gordian III reaches Antioch and, with his army, prepares an offensive against the Sassanids. * Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus becomes praetorian prefect and *de facto* ruler of the Roman Empire. ###### Persia * Prince Shapur I succeeds his father Ardashir I as ruler of the Sassanid Empire. He begins his expansion in India. * Shapur I annexes parts of the Kushan Empire. The ancient city of Bagram (modern Afghanistan) is abandoned. * Fall of Hatra: Shapur I captures Hatra, the capital of the Kingdom of Hatra. The city is destroyed by the Sassanids. ###### Europe * November 1 – The Battle of Samhain is fought in Ireland (approximate date). #### By topic ###### Religion * The Dura-Europos church is converted from a house in Syria (approximate date). ### 242 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Gordian III begins a campaign against King Shapur I; Greek philosopher Plotinus joins him, hoping to obtain first-hand knowledge of Persian and Indian philosophies. * Gordian III evacuates the Cimmerian cities in the Bosphorus (Crimea), as the territory is now controlled by the Goths. ###### Persia * Shapur I makes a pre-emptive attack on Antioch to drive out the Romans. Gordian's father-in-law, Timesitheus, leads a Roman army to defeat the Sassanids at Carrhae and Nisibis. * King Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid Empire, dies after a 30-year reign. He is succeeded by his son and co-ruler Shapur I. #### By topic ###### Religion * Patriarch Titus succeeds Eugenius I as Patriarch of Constantinople (until 272). ### 243 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Battle of Resaena: A Roman army under Timesitheus defeats the Sassanids at Resaena (mdern Syria); King Shapur I is forced to flee to the Euphrates. * Timesitheus becomes ill and dies under suspicious circumstances. Shapur I retreats to the Sassanid Empire, giving up all the territories he has conquered. * Emperor Gordian III appoints Philip the Arab as his new praetorian prefect (after the death of Timesitheus) and proceeds with his campaign in Mesopotamia. * Cohors I Ubiorum, the garrison at Capidava in Scythia Minor, is replaced by Cohors I Germanorum Civium Romanorum, until the end of the 3rd century AD. ###### Asia * Fan Chan of Funan sends a tribute mission to China (approximate date). ### 244 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * January 13 - March 14 – Battle of Misiche: King Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire delivers a counter-attack near Fallujah (Iraq), and defeats the Roman army upstream of the Euphrates. * February 11 – Emperor Gordian III is murdered by mutinous soldiers in Zaitha (Mesopotamia). A mound is raised at Carchemish in his memory. * Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus) declares himself co-emperor, and makes a controversial peace with the Sassanian Empire, withdrawing from their territory and giving Shapur 500,000 gold pieces. The Sassanians occupy Armenia. * Philip the Arab is recognized by the Roman Senate as the new Roman Emperor with the honorific *Augustus*. He nominates his son Philippus, age 6, with the title of *Caesar* and makes him heir to the throne; gives his brother Priscus supreme power (*rector Orientis*) in the Eastern provinces; and begins construction of the city of Shahba (Syria) in the province of his birth. * The vassal Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Osroene is absorbed into the Roman Empire, its last ruler being Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu. ###### Asia * Battle of Xingshi: Shu Han defeats the Chinese state of Cao Wei. ###### Korea * The Goguryeo–Wei War is fought between the Korean kingdom Goguryeo and the Chinese state Cao Wei. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * Plotinus, Greek philosopher, escapes the bloodshed that accompanies the murder of Gordianus III and makes his way to Antioch. Back in Rome he founds his Neoplatonist school and attracts disciples like Porphyry, Castricius Firmus and Eustochius of Alexandria. * 244–249 – Bust of Philip the Arab (in Braccio Nuovo, Vatican Museums, Rome). ###### Commerce * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 0.5 percent under emperor Philippus I, down from 28 percent under Gordian III. ###### Religion * 244–245 – Last phase of construction of the house-style Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria, one of the oldest to survive (wall-paintings in the National Museum of Damascus, Syria). ### 245 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Philip the Arab entrusts Trajan Decius with an important command on the Danube. * In Britain, many thousands of acres of modern-day Lincolnshire are inundated by a great flood. * The philosopher Plotinus goes to live in Rome. ###### Asia * Lady Triệu, a Vietnamese warrior, begins her 3-year resistance against the invading Chinese. ### 246 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Philip the Arab fights the Germans along the Danube River. * The first of two Councils of Arabia in the Roman Christian Church is held in Bostra, Arabia Petraea. ###### Korea * Baekje Kingdom under King Goi of Baekje attacks the Chinese commandery of Daifang. ### 247 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Rome becomes 1,000 years old. The 1,000th anniversary is commemorated with the *Ludi Saeculares* festivals, celebrated throughout the Roman Empire. * Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus and his 10-year-old son Marcus Julius Philippus Caesar become Roman Consuls. * The Goths appear on the lower Danube frontier; they invade Ukraine and Romania. * Emperor Philip the Arab marks the millennium of Rome by holding the *Ludi Saeculares*. * The last of the two Councils of Arabia in the Roman Christian Church is held in Bostra, Arabia Petraea. ###### Asia * Himiko of Yamataikoku, in Japan, begins a war against King Himikoku of Kunukoku. * Cheomhae becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. ### 248 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * The revolts of Pacatianus in Moesia and Iotapianus in Syria are put down by Senator Trajan Decius, by order of Emperor Philip the Arab. * The Roman Empire continues the celebration of the 1,000th anniversary of Rome, with the *ludi saeculares*, organized by Philip the Arab. ###### Asia * Jungcheon becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo (until 270). #### By topic ###### Religion * Cyprian, Christian writer of Berber descent, becomes bishop of Carthage. * Origen writes an eight-volume work, criticizing the pagan writer Celsus. ### 249 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Trajan Decius puts down a revolt in Moesia and Pannonia. Loyal legionaries proclaim him emperor, and he leads them into Italy. * Battle of Verona: Decius defeats and kills Emperor Philip the Arab. * Decius begins persecuting Christians, and others refusing to participate in Emperor worship. ###### Asia * February 5 – Incident at Gaoping Tombs: In the Chinese state of Cao Wei, regent Sima Yi, in a *coup d'état*, forces his co-regent Cao Shuang to relinquish his power, after taking control of the capital city of Luoyang. Sima Yi issues a memorial, which lists the various crimes he and his associates has committed. #### By topic ###### Religion * In Alexandria, the populace pillages the homes of Christians. Significant people ------------------ Births ------ **240** * Lucian of Antioch, Syrian theologian and martyr (d. 312) * Sporus of Nicaea, Greek mathematician (approximate date) * Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (d. 274) **241** * Cao Mao, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state in the Three Kingdoms period (d. 260) **242** * Saloninus, Roman emperor (d. 260) **243** * Sun Hao, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (d. 284) * Sun Liang, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (d. 260) **244** * December 22 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (d. 311) * Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Byzantium (approximate date) **245** * Iamblichus, Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher (approximate date) **246** * Cao Huan, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (d. 303) **247** * Pan Yue, Chinese poet and writer of the Jin Dynasty (d. 300) * Prisca, Roman empress and wife of Diocletian (d. 315) **248** * Flavia Iulia Helena, Roman empress (approximate date) * Li Liu (or **Xuantong**), Chinese Grand General (d. 303) * Sima You (or **Dayou**), Chinese prince and politician (d. 283) **249** * Shi Chong (or **Jilun**), Chinese politician and statesman Deaths ------ **240** * Ammonius Saccas, Neoplatonic philosopher (approximate date) * Herodian of Antioch, Roman historian and writer (b. 170) * Huang Quan (or Gongheng), Chinese general **241** * Sanatruq II, king of Hatra (Ending of the Kingdom of Hatra) * Sun Deng, Chinese prince of the Eastern Wu state (b. 209) * Sun Shao, Chinese general of the Eastern Wu state (b. 188) * Zhuge Jin, Chinese general of the Eastern Wu state (b. 174) **242** * Ammonius Saccas, Egyptian philosopher (b. 175) * Ardashir I, king of the Sassanid Empire (b. 180) * Cao Hui, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state * Man Chong (or **Boning**), Chinese politician **243** * Gu Yong (or **Yuantan**), Chinese official and politician (b. 168) * Hu Zong (or **Weize**), Chinese official and general (b. 183) * Timesitheus, Roman advisor and praetorian prefect (b. 190) * Xue Zong (or **Jingwen**), Chinese official, politician and poet **244** * February 11 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (b. 225) * Cao Xun, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 231) * Ge Xuan (or **Xiaoxian**), Chinese Taoist (b. 164) * Zhang Cheng (or **Zhongsi**), Chinese general (b. 178) **245** * Ammonius Saccas, Alexandrian-Greek philosopher (approximate date) * Lu Xun (or **Boyan**), Chinese general and statesman (b. 183) * Wu (or **Wu Xian**), Chinese empress of the Shu Han state * Wu Can (or **Kongxiu**), Chinese official and politician * Zhao Yan (or **Boran**), Chinese official and general (b. 171) * Zhang Xiu (or **Shusi**), Chinese general and statesman (b. 205) **246** * Dong Yun (or **Xiuzhao**), Chinese general and politician * Gu Tan (or **Zimo**), Chinese official and politician (b. 205) * Jiang Wan (or **Gongyan**), Chinese general and statesman **247** * Abba Arikha, Babylonian Jewish scholar and rabbi (b. 175) * Bu Zhi (or **Zishan**), Chinese general, official and statesman * Xiang Lang (or **Juda**), Chinese general, official and politician * Zhang Chunhua, wife of Sima Yi, regent of the Cao Wei state (b. 189) **248** * Dongcheon, Korean ruler of Goguryeo (b. 209) * Himiko (or **Shingi Waō**), Japanese queen (b. 170) * Trieu Thi Trinh, Vietnamese female warrior (b. 226) * Wang Ping, Chinese general and politician **249** * February 9 + Bi Gui (or **Zhaoxian**), Chinese politician + Cao Shuang, Chinese general and regent + Deng Yang (or **Xuanmao**), Chinese politician + He Yan (or **Pingshu**), Chinese philosopher + Huan Fan (or **Yuanze**), Chinese general + Li Sheng (or **Gongzhao**), Chinese politician * May 18 – Jiang Ji (or **Zitong**), Chinese general * Jotapianus (or **Jotapian**), Roman usurper * Ma Zhong (or **Dexin**), Chinese general and politician * Philip II (**the Younger**), Roman emperor (b. 237) * Philip the Arab, Roman general and emperor (b. 204) * Quan Cong, Chinese general and politician (b. 198) * Wang Bi, Chinese philosopher and politician (b. 226) * Xu Miao (or **Jingshan**), Chinese politician (b. 172) * Zhu Ran, Chinese adviser and general (b. 182)

240s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/240s

Year **23 BC** was either a common year starting on Saturday or Sunday or a leap year starting on Friday, Saturday or Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Friday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Varro** (or, less frequently, **year 731 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 23 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Caesar Augustus becomes Roman consul for the eleventh time. His co-consul is Aulus Terentius Varro Murena. * Augustus relinquishes the position of consul, retains that of tribune of Rome, and assumes that of *Princeps*, or "First Citizen." (see Roman Empire). * Augustus gets seriously ill: he gives Agrippa his signet ring and grants him the title *imperium pro consule*. * Marcus Claudius Marcellus (nephew of Augustus) falls ill from a fever shortly after his uncle recovers and dies at the age of nineteen while serving as an aedile. * The Nubians, led by queen Kandake Amanirenas, take the initiative against the Roman Empire, and attack the Roman province of Egypt moving towards Elephantine. * In response to Meroë's incursions into Upper Egypt, the Roman legions move south and raze Napata. (History of Sudan). * Herod the Great builds a palace in Jerusalem and the fortress Herodian in Judaea. He also marries his third wife, named Mariamne, the daughter of high priest Simon. * Following coinage reform, the as is struck in reddish pure copper, instead of bronze. The denominations of sestertius and dupondius are introduced as large bronze coins. #### Osroene * Ma'nu III Saphul becomes ruler of Osroene. ### By topic #### Architecture * The Roman writer, architect and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio finishes writing *De Architectura* (known today as *The Ten Books of Architecture*), a treatise in Latin on architecture, and perhaps the first work about this discipline. #### Poetry * The Roman poet Horace publishes the first three books of Odes. Births ------ * Dong Xian, Chinese politician and general (d. 1 BC) * Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Samaria (Judea) (d. AD 18) Deaths ------ * Marcus Claudius Marcellus, son of Octavia and nephew of Augustus (b. 42 BC)

23 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23_BC

Year **313 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Cursor and Brutus** (or, less frequently, **year 441 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 313 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Macedonian Empire * Antigonus sends Telesphorus (general) to the Peloponnesus to free the cities. #### Egypt * Ptolemy, whose Egyptian kingdom includes Cyprus, puts down a revolt there. A revolt in Cyrene is also crushed. #### Greece * Becoming tired of the Macedonian rule, the people of Epirus recall their former king Aeacides. Cassander immediately sends an army against him under his brother, Philip, who is diverted from invading Aetolia. * Philip defeats Aeacides in a battle. Aeacides, with the remnant of his forces, joins the Aetolians. A second battle takes place, in which Philip is again victorious, and Aeacides is killed. The remaining Aetolian army takes refuge in the surrounding mountains. #### Asia * Asander agrees to send all his soldiers to Antigonus to help keep Greek cities autonomous * Asander sends emissaries to Ptolemy and Seleucus asking for help Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Aeacides, King of Epirus

313 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/313_BC

Year **244** (**CCXLIV**) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Armenius and Aemilianus** (or, less frequently, **year 997 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 244 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * January 13 - March 14 – Battle of Misiche: King Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire delivers a counter-attack near Fallujah (Iraq), and defeats the Roman army upstream of the Euphrates. * February 11 – Emperor Gordian III is murdered by mutinous soldiers in Zaitha (Mesopotamia). A mound is raised at Carchemish in his memory. * Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus) declares himself co-emperor, and makes a controversial peace with the Sassanian Empire, withdrawing from their territory and giving Shapur 500,000 gold pieces. The Sassanians occupy Armenia. * Philip the Arab is recognized by the Roman Senate as the new Roman Emperor with the honorific *Augustus*. He nominates his son Philippus, age 6, with the title of *Caesar* and makes him heir to the throne; gives his brother Priscus supreme power (*rector Orientis*) in the Eastern provinces; and begins construction of the city of Shahba (Syria) in the province of his birth. * The vassal Upper Mesopotamian kingdom of Osroene is absorbed into the Roman Empire, its last ruler being Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu. #### Asia * Battle of Xingshi: Shu Han defeats the Chinese state of Cao Wei. #### Korea * The Goguryeo–Wei War is fought between the Korean kingdom Goguryeo and the Chinese state Cao Wei. ### By topic #### Art and Science * Plotinus, Greek philosopher, escapes the bloodshed that accompanies the murder of Gordianus III and makes his way to Antioch. Back in Rome he founds his Neoplatonist school and attracts disciples like Porphyry, Castricius Firmus and Eustochius of Alexandria. * 244–249 – Bust of Philip the Arab (in Braccio Nuovo, Vatican Museums, Rome). #### Commerce * The silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 0.5 percent under emperor Philippus I, down from 28 percent under Gordian III. #### Religion * 244–245 – Last phase of construction of the house-style Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria, one of the oldest to survive (wall-paintings in the National Museum of Damascus, Syria). Births ------ * December 22 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (d. 311) * Alexander of Constantinople, bishop of Byzantium (approximate date) Deaths ------ * February 11 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (b. 225) * Cao Xun, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 231) * Ge Xuan (or **Xiaoxian**), Chinese Taoist (b. 164) * Zhang Cheng (or **Zhongsi**), Chinese general (b. 178)

244

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/244

The year **285** (**CCLXXXV**) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the "**Year of the Consulship of Carinus and Aurelius**" (or, less frequently, "**year 1038 *Ab urbe condita***"). The denomination *285* for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Spring – Emperor Carinus marches from Britain to northern Italy, and defeats the army of usurper Sabinus Julianus at Verona. * Summer – Battle of the Margus: Emperor Diocletian defeats the forces of Carinus in the valley of the Margus (Serbia). Numerous soldiers desert Carinus during the battle. Carinus then flees to the Pannonian fort of Cornacum, but he is soon slain by his officers. * July 21 or July 25 – Diocletian appoints his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of caesar, or junior co-emperor. * Carausius, naval commander at Bononia (modern-day Boulogne), is given the task of clearing the English Channel of Frankish and Saxon pirates. * Maximian is sent to pacify Gaul, where the Bagaudae, a band of peasants, are revolting against the Roman Empire. Births ------ * St. Sylvester, Italian bishop (d. 335) Deaths ------ * Marcus Aurelius Carinus, Roman consul and emperor * Du Yu (or **Yuankai**), Chinese general and politician (b. 222) * Sabinus Julianus, Roman usurper (approximate date)

285

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/285

Year **287 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Rutilus** (or, less frequently, **year 467 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 287 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * A new law, Lex Hortensia, gives much greater power to the plebeian Assembly compared to the Senate. This law is passed following a threat from plebeian soldiers to secede. In the face of this threat, the Senate yields to plebeian concerns over their lack of political power and over their level of debt to the aristocracy. The law is named after Quintus Hortensius, a plebeian, who is made dictator to settle the controversy. * With the Lex Hortensia in place, in theory the political distinctions in Rome between the patricians and the plebeians disappear. However, in practice, the coalition of leading plebeian families keep control which means that the patricians are able to largely nullify the power of the assemblies. So Roman government continues to be oligarchic in character. #### Greece * The Macedonians resent the extravagance and arrogance of Demetrius Poliorcetes and are not prepared to fight a difficult campaign for him. When Pyrrhus of Epirus takes the Macedonian city of Verroia, Demetrius' army promptly deserts and goes over to Pyrrhus' side as he is much admired by the Macedonians for his bravery. At this change of fortune, Phila, the mother of Antigonus, kills herself with poison. * Demetrius besieges Athens without success. He leave Antigonus in charge of the war in Greece, assembles all his ships and embarks with his troops to attack Caria and Lydia, provinces in Asia Minor controlled by Lysimachus. * Agathocles is sent by his father Lysimachus against Demetrius. Agathocles defeats Demetrius and drives him out of his father's provinces. * Pyrrhus is proclaimed King of Macedonia. Births ------ * ArchimedesArchimedes * Archimedes of Syracuse, Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer and philosopher (approximate date) (d. c. 212 BC) Deaths ------ * Phila, daughter of Antipater, the regent of Macedonia * Theophrastus, Greek Peripatetic philosopher and pupil of Aristotle (b. c. 372 BC)

287 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/287_BC

Year **289 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Corvus and Noctua** (or, less frequently, **year 465 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 289 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Sicily * The tyrant of Syracuse, Agathocles, dies after restoring the Syracusan democracy on his death bed by stating that he does not want his sons to succeed him as king. However, the resulting dissension among his family about the succession leads to a renewal of Carthaginian power in Sicily. #### China * General Sima Cuo of the State of Qin attacks the State of Wei, recaptures the city of Yuan and captures the cities of Heyong and Jueqiao. Births ------ Deaths ------ * Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, Sicily from 317 BC and self-styled king of Sicily after 304 BC (b. 361 BC) * Mencius (Mèng Zǐ or Meng Zhu), Chinese philosopher (approximate date) (b. c. 372 BC)

289 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/289_BC

Year **280 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Laevinus and Coruncanius** (or, less frequently, **year 474 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 280 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Seleucid Empire * Antiochus makes his eldest son, Seleucus, king in the east, but he proves to be incompetent. * Antiochus is compelled to make peace with his father's murderer and King of Macedon, Ptolemy Keraunos, abandoning, for the time being, his plans to control Macedonia and Thrace. * Nicomedes, King of Bithynia, is threatened with an invasion from Antiochus who has already made war upon his father, Zipoites. Antiochus actually invades Bithynia but withdraws again without risking a battle. * Antiochus is unable to bring under his control the Persian dynasties that rule in Cappadocia. * Antiochus is defeated by Egypt's Ptolemy II in the Damascene War. #### Greece * Pyrrhus makes an alliance with Ptolemy Keraunos, King of Macedon. This allows him to go to southern Italy with his army. * The Achaean League is reformed by twelve towns in the northern Peloponnesus and will later grow to include non-Achaean cities. It has two generals, a federal council with proportional representation of members and an annual assembly of all free citizens. The League achieves a common coinage and foreign policy and the member cities pool their armed forces. * Rhodes, rising in prosperity, becomes head of an Island League and helps to keep the peace and freedom of the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. * The Colossus of Rhodes is completed by the sculptor Chares of Lindos after twelve years' work. It becomes one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Colossus of Rhodes is a giant statue of the Greek god Helios. It stands 70 cubits tall (over 30 metres or 100 feet), making it the tallest statue of the ancient world. #### Roman Republic * Responding to an appeal from Tarentum, King Pyrrhus of Epirus uses his army of over 20,000 men against the Romans. In the Battle of Heraclea he defeats a Roman army led by consul Publius Valerius Laevinus. Pyrrhus's judicious use of his elephants plays a large part in his victory. Several tribes including the Lucani, Bruttii and the Messapians as well as the Greek cities of Crotone and Locri join Pyrrhus. * Roman commander and statesman, Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, is sent to negotiate the ransom and exchange of prisoners. Pyrrhus is so impressed by Fabricius refusing to accept a bribe, that Pyrrhus releases the prisoners without the requirement of a ransom. Following his victory, Pyrrhus advances as far north as Latium. #### China * General Sima Cuo of the State of Qin attacks the State of Chu, conquering the western region of Qianzhong by marching through the region of Bashu. This conquest makes it easier for future Qin armies to invade Chu. * General Bai Qi of Qin attacks the State of Zhou and captures the city of Guanglang. ### By topic #### Astronomy * Aristarchus of Samos uses the size of the Earth's shadow on the Moon to estimate that the Moon's radius is one-third that of the Earth. He proposes, for the first time, a heliocentric view of the Solar System, but is ignored due to the lack of evidence of the Earth's motion. Births ------ * Han Fei, Chinese philosopher who has developed Xun Zi's philosophy (approximate date) * Li Si, influential prime minister (or chancellor) of the feudal state and later of the dynasty of Qin (approximate date) (d. 208 BC) * Philo of Byzantium, a Greek writer on mechanics (approximate date) (d. c. 220 BC) Deaths ------ * Demetrius of Phaleron (or Demetrius Phalereus), Athenian orator, statesman, and philosopher, who has become prominent at the court of Ptolemy I, enjoying a high reputation as an orator (b. c. 350 BC) * Herophilus, Alexandrian physician who has been an early performer of public dissections on human cadavers; often called the father of anatomy (b. c. 335 BC)

280 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/280_BC

Year **261 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Flaccus and Crassus** (or, less frequently, **year 493 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 261 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * The Romans, determined to win control of Sicily from Carthage, build a fleet based on the model of a captured Carthaginian quinquereme. #### Seleucid Empire * The new Seleucid king Antiochus II reaches an agreement with the king of Macedonia, Antigonus II Gonatas, to work together in trying to push Ptolemy II's fleet and armies out of the Aegean Sea. With Macedonia's support, Antiochus II launches an attack on Ptolemaic outposts in Asia Minor. #### China * The armies of the State of Qin and State of Zhao contest control of the area around Changping. After suffering defeats to general Wang He of Qin and the superior Qin army, general Lian Po of Zhao refuses to give battle, resulting in a stalemate. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Antiochus I Soter, Greek king of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire

261 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/261_BC

Year **263** (**CCLXIII**) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Albinus and Dexter** (or, less frequently, **year 1016 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 263 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * King Odenathus of Palmyra declares himself ruler of the area west of the River Euphrates and is declared *Dux Orientalis* by the Roman emperor Gallienus. #### Asia * Conquest of Shu by Wei: The Chinese state of Cao Wei conquers Shu Han, one of its two rival states. * Sima Zhao, regent of the Cao Wei state, receives and accepts the nine bestowments, state chancellorship, and the title *Duke of Jin* from Cao Huan. ### By topic #### Art and Science * Chinese mathematician Liu Hui writes a commentary on *The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*, describing what will later be called Gaussian elimination, computing pi, etc. Births ------ Deaths ------ * Gao Rou (or **Wenhui**), Chinese politician (b. 174) * Lady Li (or **Lishi**), Chinese noblewoman * Liu Chen, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state * Ruan Ji, Chinese poet and musician (b. 210) * Zhuge Zhan, Chinese general and politician (b. 227)

263

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/263

Year **266 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Pera and Pictor** (or, less frequently, **year 488 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 266 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * January 23 – Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Julius Libo celebrate triumphs over the Salentini. * Calabria and Messapia are annexed by the Roman Republic. #### Asia Minor * Ariobarzanes becomes the second king of Pontus, succeeding his father Mithridates I Ctistes. #### India * The Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism. Births ------ * Berenice II, queen and co-regent of Egypt (or 267 BC) Deaths ------ * Huiwen of Zhao, Chinese king of Zhao (b. 310 BC) * Mithridates I Ctistes, founder of the kingdom of Pontus

266 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/266_BC

Year **267** (**CCLXVII**) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Paternus and Arcesilaus** (or, less frequently, **year 1020 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 267 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * First Gothic invasion: The Goths, originally from Scandinavia, with the Sarmatians (from modern Iran), invade the Balkans and Greece. They ravage Moesia and Thrace. * The Heruli invade the Black Sea coast; they unsuccessfully attack Byzantium and Cyzicus. The Roman fleet defeats the Herulian fleet (500 ships) but allows them to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they raid the islands of Lemnos and Skyros. * The Goths sack several cities of southern Greece including Athens, Corinth, Argos and Sparta. After the Sack of Athens, an Athenian militia force (2,000 men), under the historian Dexippus, pushes the invaders to the north where they are intercepted by the Roman army under emperor Gallienus. He wins an important victory near the Nestos River, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace. * Aureolus, charged with defending Italy, defeats Victorinus (co-emperor of Gaul), is proclaimed emperor by his troops, and begins his march on Rome. #### Near East * King Septimius Odaenathus of Palmyra makes plans for a campaign in Cappadocia against the Goths. He is assassinated, along with his eldest son, most probably by his nephew due to a previous altercation between him and Odaenathus. His wife Zenobia succeeds him, and rules Vaballathus (the Palmyrene Empire) with her young son. Births ------ * Pei Wei (or **Yimin**), Chinese philosopher and politician (d. 300) Deaths ------ * Septimius Herodianus, co-king of Palmyra (assassinated) * Septimius Odaenathus, king of Palmyra (assassinated)

267

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/267

Year **26 BC** was either a common year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday or a leap year starting on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a common year starting on Monday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Taurus** (or, less frequently, **year 728 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 26 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Imperator Caesar Augustus becomes Roman Consul for the eighth time. His partner Titus Statilius Taurus becomes Consul for the second time and refounds the old Contestanian Iberian capital of Ilici (Elche), known since then as "Colonia Iulia Ilici Augusta". * Cleopatra Selene marries Juba II of Numidia, and as a wedding present Augustus makes her the queen of Mauretania in her own right. * Disastrous campaign of Aelius Gallus in the Arabian Peninsula, then known as "Arabia Felix". * Tiridates II invades Parthia and issues coins dated from March and May, 26 BC. * Gavius Silo, orator, is heard by Caesar Augustus - mentioned by Seneca. * Augustus starts a campaign against the Cantabrians in northern Hispania. He leads an army (8 legions) and consolidates the north-eastern region. #### Greece * Dioteimus Alaieus is one of the Archons of Athens. #### Osroene * Abgar III of Osroene is succeeded by Abgar IV Sumaqa. #### Asia * The Andhra dynasty replaces the Kanva dynasty, and rules over the eastern part of India. ### By topic #### Astronomy * August 29 – Christian Cross Asterism (astronomy) at Zenith of Lima, Peru. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Gaius Cornelius Gallus, Roman politician and poet (b. 70 BC) * Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus, Roman politician

26 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26_BC

The **410s** decade ran from January 1, 410, to December 31, 419. Events ------ ### 410 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Spring – Constantine III crosses the Alps into Liguria (Northern Italy), but retreats to Gaul after Gerontius revolts in Spain against his son Constans II. * Raiders from Ireland, such as the Uí Liatháin and Laigin, harry the coasts of Wales. They plunder towns and capture slaves but later colonise large areas of what is called *Gwynedd*, in particular Llŷn, the coasts of Arllechwedd, Arfon and the Isle of Mona (approximate date). * Flavius Constantius, Roman general and politician, is promoted to the rank of *magister militum*. He becomes the imperial adviser of Honorius, and the power behind the throne in the Western Roman Empire. * The Eastern Roman Empire sends six legions (6,000 men) to aid Honorius at Ravenna. He negotiates with King Alaric I, who ceremonially deposes Priscus Attalus as co-emperor. * August 24 – The Visigoths under Alaric I sack Rome after a third siege. Slaves open the Salarian Gate and Goths loot the city for three days; according to Augustine in *The City of God* and others, comparatively few Roman men are killed and women raped. Only two churches are burned, and people who took refuge in churches are usually spared. Many Romans who survived the Sack flee to Africa, or to the Eastern Empire (see Saint Jerome). It is the first time since 390 BC that Rome has fallen to an enemy. This marks the decline of the Roman Empire. Only 45 years later, in 455 AD, Rome will again be sacked, this time by the Vandals who will kill, burn, and loot much more ferociously than the Visigoths in 410 AD. * Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodosius I, is captured by the Visigoths and becomes a hostage during their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul. * Alaric I marches southwards into Calabria and makes plans to invade Africa. But a storm destroys his Gothic fleet and many of his soldiers drown. Alaric dies in Cosenza, probably of fever, and his body is buried along with his treasure under the riverbed of the Busento. He is succeeded by his brother-in-law Ataulf, who becomes king of the Visigoths. * According to Zosimus, this is the year when Emperor Honorius sends his *Rescript* (diplomatic letters) to the Romano-British magistrates, ending Roman rule in Great Britain. However this is likely an example of scribal error. Most recently, David Woods has argued that the account refers instead to Raetia, a Roman province north of Italy. ###### Britain * At around this time, one of the first Anglo-Saxon settlements in Britain, Mucking, is established by the mouth of the Thames River. (approximate date) ###### Europe * The city of Aléria on the island of Corsica is devastated by a huge fire, destroying its port and most of its inhabitants. ###### Asia * Prithivisena becomes king of the Vakataka in the Deccan (India). #### By topic ###### Religion * Council of Seleucia: Persian Christians create a national church and adopt the Nicene Creed. * Honoratus founds the Monastery of Lérins on the île Saint-Honorat (France), and forms a monastic community. ### 411 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Honorius sends two Roman generals to deal with the usurper Constantine III in Gaul. They kill Gerontius, Constantine's rebellious general (*magister militum*) in Spain, then besiege Arles and defeat Constantine III. He is taken prisoner and put to death at Ravenna. * Following the defeat of Constantine III, the Burgundians and the Gallic nobility proclaim Jovinus, Gallo-Roman senator, emperor of the Western Roman Empire at *Mogontiacum* (modern Mainz). ###### Europe * King Ataulf leads the Goths into Gaul at the instigation of Honorius, who promises to recognise a Visigothic Kingdom if he defeats the several usurpers who threaten the Roman Empire. * The Alans establish their rule in the Roman province of Lusitania (Portugal south of the Duero River and Spain). * The Teutonic tribes in Spain join the Roman Empire as *foederati* (allies with military commitments). ###### Asia * Ingyo succeeds his brother Hanzei, and becomes the 19th emperor of Japan. #### By topic ###### Religion * Rabbula becomes bishop of Edessa. * The Councils of Carthage are held, on the issue of Donatism. ### 412 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * The Visigoths, led by King Ataulf, move into the south of Gaul. He establishes his residence at Narbonne, and makes an alliance with Emperor Honorius, against the usurper Jovinus. * Emperor Jovinus elevates his brother Sebastianus as co-emperor (*Augustus*) and takes control of Gaul. * Heraclianus, governor (*Comes Africae*), revolts against Honorius and proclaims himself *Augustus*. He interrupts the grain supply to Rome. Honorius condemns him and his supporters to death with an edict at Ravenna. * The Theodosian Walls are constructed at Constantinople during the reign of emperor Theodosius II. The work is carried out under supervision of Anthemius, notable praetorian prefect of the East. * Winter – Olympiodorus, historical writer, is sent on an embassy by Honorius, and sails in stormy weather around Greece up the Black Sea, to meet the Huns who are located on the middle Danube (modern Bulgaria). ###### Balkans * The forts on the west bank of the Danube, which were destroyed by the Huns, are rebuilt, and a new Danubian fleet is launched. #### By topic ###### Religion * An edict of Honorius outlaws Donatism. * Cyril of Alexandria becomes Patriarch of Alexandria. * Lazarus, bishop of Aix-en-Provence, and Herod, bishop of Arles, are expelled from their sees on a charge of Manichaeism. * Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, spends 2 years in Ceylon and is more than 200 days at sea as storms drive his ship off its course, but returns with sacred Buddhist texts back to China (see 414). ### 413 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Heraclianus, Roman usurper, lands in Italy with a large army to fight Emperor Honorius. He is defeated in Umbria and flees to Carthage, where he is put to death by envoys of Honorius. * May 8 – Honorius signs an edict providing tax relief for the Italian provinces Tuscia, Campania, Picenum, Samnium, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria, which were plundered by the Visigoths. * The Visigoths, led by King Ataulf, conquer the towns of Toulouse and Bordeaux by force of arms. After a successful siege of Valence, he captures the usurper Jovinus and his brother Sebastianus. In Narbonne they are executed and their heads are sent to Honorius' court at Ravenna. ###### Asia * Kumaragupta I succeeds his father Chandragupta II as emperor of the Gupta Empire (India). * Jangsu becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. #### By topic ###### Religion * Augustine of Hippo, age 59, begins to write his spiritual book *De Civitate Dei* (City of God), as a reply to the charge that Christianity was responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire. ### 414 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * January 1 – Galla Placidia, half-sister of emperor Honorius, is married to the Visigothic king Ataulf at Narbonne. The wedding is celebrated with Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. * July 4 – Emperor Theodosius II, age 13, yields power to his older sister Aelia Pulcheria, who reigns as regent and proclaims herself empress (*Augusta*) of the Eastern Roman Empire. * Constantius III, Roman general (*magister militum*), begins a military campaign against the Visigoths in Gaul. He blockades the Gallic ports and besieges Marseille. * Priscus Attalus is proclaimed rival emperor by the Visigoths for a second time at Bordeaux, in order to impose their terms on Honorius, who has his residence in Ravenna. ###### Asia * The Southern Liang, a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty, comes to an end. #### By topic ###### Religion * Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, returns from India and begins translating Buddhist works into Chinese. * Abdas, bishop of Susa, burns down a Zoroastrian temple; in retaliation, King Yazdegerd I of Persia orders the destruction of churches. ### 415 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Constantius, Roman general (*magister militum*), drives the Visigoths out of Gaul. He captures the usurper Priscus Attalus, and sends him under military escort to Ravenna. * The Visigoths invade the Iberian Peninsula and begin to conquer territory taken previously by the Vandals. King Ataulf and his pregnant wife Galla Placidia leave Gallia Narbonensis; they relocate at Barcelona. Their infant son, Theodosius, dies in infancy, eliminating an opportunity for a Roman-Visigothic line. Ataulf is assassinated in the palace while taking a bath. Sigeric succeeds him, but after a reign of seven days he is also murdered. * Autumn – Wallia, brother of Ataulf, becomes king of the Visigoths. He accepts a peace treaty with emperor Honorius, in return for a supply of 600,000 measures of grain. After the negotiations he sends Placidia to Rome with hostages. ###### Asia * March 18 – The Daysan River floods Edessa (Mesopotamia). #### By topic ###### Religion * Hypatia of Alexandria, Neoplatonist philosopher, is murdered by a Christian mob of Nitrian monks at the church (former temple conceived by Cleopatra VII) called Caesareum. * Having driven out the Jews, Alexandria's new patriarch, Cyril, has instigated the mob after taking offense at Hypatia's scientific rationalism (approximate date). * John Cassian, Christian theologian, settles at a monastery in Marseille (Gaul); he organizes monastic communities after an eastern model. * The Eustathian schism in Antioch is healed (approximate date). ### 416 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Priscus Attalus, Roman usurper, is forced to participate in a triumph celebrated by Emperor Honorius, in the streets of Rome. After the festivities, he is exiled to the Lipari Islands (north of Sicily). ###### Europe * The Visigoths continue their invasion of Hispania, and take control of Tarraconensis. King Wallia occupies the gold mines at Las Médulas, and forces Jewish citizens to convert to Christianity. ###### Asia * Reports of the eruption of Krakatoa are recorded in a Javanese historical chronicle called the *Book of Kings*. #### By topic ###### Arts and Sciences * Rutilius Claudius Namatianus begins his journey home from Rome to Gaul. This becomes the subject of his unfinished poem, *De Reditu Suo*. ### 417 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * January 1 – Emperor Honorius forces his half-sister Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his general (*magister militum*). He is appointed *patricius* and becomes a prominent member of the House of Theodosius. * The Visigoths are granted Aquitaine, and become allies (*foederati*) of the Western Roman Empire. King Wallia establishes his capital at Toulouse. ###### Asia * Nulji becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. #### By topic ###### Religion * January – Pope Innocent I condemns Pelagianism, and excommunicates the ascetic Pelagius. * March 12 – Innocent I dies after a 16-year reign in which he has restored relations between the sees of Rome and Antioch, enforced celibacy of the clergy, and maintained the right of the bishop of Rome to judge appeals from other churches. Innocent is succeeded by Zosimus as the 41st pope. ### 418 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Honorius bribes Wallia, king of the Visigoths, into regaining Hispania for the Roman Empire. His victory over the Vandals in 416 forces them to retire to Andalusia. The Visigothic territory in Gaul now extends from the Garonne to the Loire, and becomes known as the Visigothic Kingdom. * Theodoric I becomes king of the Visigoths. He completes the settlements in Gallia Aquitania and expands his military power to the south. #### By topic ###### Religion * December 28 – Pope Boniface I succeeds Zosimus as the 42nd pope. * Eulalius is elected antipope of Rome. He claims in a letter to Honorius his recognition as pope. ### 419 #### By place ###### Byzantine Empire * A law is passed, making it illegal for anybody in the Western or Eastern Roman Empires, to instruct barbarians in the art of shipbuilding. ###### China * Jin Gongdi, age 33, succeeds his developmentally disabled brother Jin Andi as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Andi is strangled by orders of the warlord Liu Yu. Significant people ------------------ Births ------ **410** * Pope Gelasius I, Pope in Catholic church (d. 496) * Severinus of Noricum, monk and saint (approximate date) **411** * Merovech, Founder of the Merovingian Dynasty and grandfather of Clovis I (approximate date) **412** * February 8 – Proclus, Greek Neoplatonist philosopher (d. 485) * Lu Huinan, empress dowager of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 466) **415** * Euric, king of the Visigoths (d. 484) * Tonantius Ferreolus, prefect of Gaul (approximate date) **417** * Peter the Iberian, Georgian theologian and Saint (approximate date) * Justa Grata Honoria, daughter of Constantius III (approximate date)**418** * Ricimer, Germanic Roman general * Yuryaku, emperor of Japan (approximate date) **419** * July 2 – Valentinian III, emperor of the Western Roman Empire (d. 455) Deaths ------ **410** * Alaric I, king of the Visigoths * Hanzei, emperor of Japan (approximate date) * Maron, Syriac Christian monk * Murong Chao, emperor of Southern Yan (b. 385) * Yujiulü Shelun, khagan (emperor) of Xianbei **411** * September 18 – Constantine III, Roman usurper * Constans II, usurper and son of Constantine III * Gerontius, Roman general * Gundomar I, king of Burgundy * Yax Nuun Ayiin I, king of Tikal (Guatemala) (approximate date) **412** * October 15 – Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria * Qifu Gangui, prince of the Xianbei state Western Qin * Sarus, Gothic chieftain * Uldin, chieftain of the Huns * Wang Shen'ai, empress of the Jin Dynasty (born 384) **413** * March 7 – Heraclianus, Roman usurper * September 13 – Marcellinus of Carthage, martyr and saint * Chandragupta II, emperor of the Gupta Empire * Gwanggaeto the Great, king of Goguryeo (b. 374) * Jovinus, Roman usurper of Gaul * Kumarajiva, Buddhist monk and translator (b. 344) * Prudentius, Roman Christian poet (b. 348) * Sebastianus, Roman usurper and brother of Jovinus * Qiao Zong, warlord and prince of Chengdu **414** * Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais (approximate date) * Yujiulü Hulü, ruler of the Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia) **415** * Athaulf, king of the Visigoths * Chandragupta II, emperor of the Gupta Empire (India) * Hypatia of Alexandria, female Neoplatonist philosopher * Sigeric, king of the Visigoths * Thermantia, Roman empress * Tufa Rutan, prince of the Southern Liang (b. 365) **416** * Huiyuan, Buddhist teacher and founder of the Donglin Temple (b. 334) * Lü Long, last emperor of the Chinese Di state Later Liang * Yao Xing, emperor of the Qiang state Later Qin (b. 366) **417** * March 12 – Pope Innocent I * Li Gao, Chinese general of the state Western Liang (b. 351) * Yao Hong, last emperor of the Qiang state Later Qin (b. 388) **418** * December 26 – Pope Zosimus * Attaces, king of the Alans * Wallia, king of the Visigoths **419** * Jin Andi, emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (b. 382)

410s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/410s

Year **281** (**CCLXXXI**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Probus and Tiberianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1034 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 281 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Probus returns to Rome, where he celebrates his triumph over the Vandals and the usurpers (Bonosus, Julius Saturninus and Proculus). Births ------ * Cai Mo (or **Daoming**), Chinese official and politician (d. 356) * Theodore Stratelates, Roman general and martyr (d. 319) Deaths ------ * Proculus, Roman general and usurper

281

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/281

The **24th century BC** was a century that lasted from the year 2400 BC to 2301 BC. Events ------ * c. 2900 BC–2334 BC: Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period continue. * c. 2400 BC–2000 BC: large painted jar with birds in the border made in the Indus River Valley civilization and is now at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston * 2400 BC–There is archaeological evidence that the site of Assur was occupied at around this time. * c. 2360 BC: Hekla-4 eruption. * c. 2350 BC: The 2350 BC Middle East Anomaly (apparent comet or asteroid impact) happened. * c. 2350 BC: End of the Early Dynastic III period in Mesopotamia. * c. 2350 BC: First destruction of the city of Mari. * c. 2345 BC: End of Fifth Dynasty. Pharaoh Unas died. * c. 2345 BC: Sixth Dynasty of Egypt starts (other date is 2460 BC). * c. 2340 BC–2180 BC: Akkadian Empire. * c. 2334 BC–2279 BC: Semitic chieftain Sargon of Akkad's conquest of Sumer and Mesopotamia. * 2333 BC: Dangun establishes Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, according to Korean mythology. Inventions, discoveries and introductions ----------------------------------------- * The first official mentioning of beekeeping in Egypt. * The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents in Egypt. * First extant evidence of written Akkadian language. Mythology --------- In modern Korean national mythology, the character Dangun, whose mother was originally a bear, founded the state Gojoseon in 2333 BC and ruled it for about 2000 years. Some Koreans think of it as the earliest Korean state and of Dangun as the ancestor of Koreans. From 1948 until December 1961, the Republic of Korea officially reckoned years by adding 2333 to the Common Era year. The year 2333 BC and the related myth are sometimes presented matter-of-factly as *history* rather than *mythology* in Korea. Biblical History ---------------- Genesis flood narrative. In Jewish and Christian history, sometime near the middle of the 24th century BC, the (known) world was flooded, covering the tops of mountains, and destroying the human and land animal populations. Only the family of a man named Noah, and one breeding pair of each animal type survived the flood by floating in/on a large wooden boat for several months.

24th century BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th_century_BC

The **320s** decade ran from January 1, 320, to December 31, 329. Events ------ ### 320 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Crispus, eldest son of Constantine I, leads a victorious campaign against the Franks, assuring twenty years of peace along the Rhine frontier. He establishes his residence in *Augusta Treverorum* (modern Trier), capital of Germania. * Licinius reneges on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan, and begins a new persecution of Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire. He imprisons Christians, confiscates their properties and destroys churches. ###### Asia * King Chandragupta I founds the Gupta dynasty in northern India. * Zhang Shi (張寔), Zhang Duke of Xiping and governor of Liang Province, (涼州)is assassinated by Yan She (閻涉) and Zhao Ang (趙卬) and replaced by Zhang Mao (張茂), commonly accepted first ruler of the Chinese state Former Liang. #### By topic ###### Art * Construction begins on the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome (approximate date). ###### Culture and Religion * In Nydam Mose (Denmark), the Nydam oak boat is sacrificed by the Danes (the boat is excavated in the 1830s, when a local farmer finds weapons, including swords and spears). * December 25 is introduced as the birthday of Jesus. ###### Science * October 18 – Pappus of Alexandria, Greek philosopher, observes an eclipse of the sun and writes a commentary on *The Great Astronomer* (*Almagest*). ### 321 #### By topic ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Constantine I expels the Goths from the Danube frontier and repairs Trajan's Bridge. He leads an expedition into the old province Dacia (modern Romania) and makes peace with the barbarians. * March 7 - Constantine I signs legislation directing urban residents to refrain from work, and businesses to be closed, on the "venerable day of the Sun". An exception is made for agriculture. ###### Asia * Tuoba Heru launches a coup d'état against his cousin Tuoba Yulü, and becomes the new Prince of Dai. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * Calcidius translates Plato into Latin. ###### Food and Drink * Constantine I assigns convicts to grind Rome's flour, in a move to hold back the rising price of food in an empire whose population has shrunk as a result of plague (see 309 AD). ###### Religion * The Christian Church is allowed to hold property. * A synod held in Alexandria condemns Arianism. * Jews in today's Germany are documented for the first time, in Colonia Agrippinensium (modern-day Cologne). ### 322 #### By topic ###### Technology * The first dependable representation of a horse rider with paired stirrups is found in China, in a Jin Dynasty tomb. ### 323 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Constantine the Great defeats the invading Goths and Sarmatians north of the Danube in Dacia, and claims the title of *Sarmaticus Maximus*. ###### China * Crown Prince Ming of Jin succeeds his father Yuan of Jin as emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. ### 324 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * July 3 – Battle of Adrianople: Emperor Constantine the Great defeats his rival Licinius near Adrianople, forcing him to retreat to Byzantium. He invades Thrace with a Visigothic force and raids the countryside. This sees Constantine ruling as sole Emperor. * July – Battle of the Hellespont: Crispus destroys Licinius' naval fleet in the Dardanelles, allowing his father Constantine the ability to cross over the Bosphorus into Asian provinces. Byzantium is besieged and Licinius assembles a second military force, under his newly elevated co-emperor Martinian at Lampsacus (modern-day Lapseki). * September 18 – Battle of Chrysopolis: Constantine I definitively defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis, and becomes sole Emperor, thus ending the period of the Tetrarchy. Licinius escapes and gathers around 30,000 of his surviving troops at Nicomedia. * December 19 – Licinius abdicates his position as Emperor. He is pardoned by Constantine I as a result of the supplication of his wife Constantia (who is Constantine's halfsister), and banished to Thessalonica as a private citizen. ### 325 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Constantine I personally assures the security of the Danube frontier by defeating the Goths, the Vandals, and the Sarmatians. * Licinius is executed in Thessalonica, on a charge of conspiring and raising troops against Constantine I. * Gladiatorial combat is outlawed in the Roman Empire. ###### China * April 1 – Crown Prince Cheng of Jin, age 4, succeeds his father Ming of Jin as emperor of the Eastern Jin dynasty. During his reign, he is largely advised by regents, his uncle Yu Liang and high-level officials. #### By topic ###### Art * *Constantine the Great*, from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, Rome, is started to be made. It is now kept at Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. ###### Religion * May 20 – First Council of Nicaea: Constantine I summons an ecumenical council of bishops in Nicaea (Turkey). The Nicene Creed, adopted on June 19, declares that the members of the Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) are equal. The council decides that Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Arius is exiled to Illyria; his works are confiscated and consigned to the flames. * The Church of the Nativity is built in Bethlehem. ### 326 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Constantine the Great travels to Rome to celebrate the 20th anniversary of his accession to power, but while en route at Pola he orders his older son, Crispus Caesar, to be executed, possibly on charges of adultery. Later, Fausta, second wife of Constantine I, is also executed by being suffocated in a hot bath. * Constantine I founds Constantinople and incorporates Byzantium into the new capital. He reorganises the Roman army in smaller units classified into three grades: *palatini*, (imperial escort armies); *comitatenses*, (forces based in frontier provinces) and *limitanei* (auxilia border troops). * Constantine I promulgates laws against the prostitution of maidservants, and for the humanization of prisons. #### By topic ###### Art * *Constantine the Great*, from the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome, is finished. It is now kept at Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. ###### Religion * September 14 (traditional date) – Helena, mother of Constantine I, discovers the so-called True Cross and the Holy Sepulchre (Jesus's tomb) in Jerusalem. On her pilgrimage, she pauses on the Aegean island of Patmos, where she is said to found the church of Panagia Ekatontapiliani. * Helena tells Constantine that he must atone for executing his son and wife by building churches, and at about this date construction begins on Old St. Peter's Basilica, the first church on the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb in Rome, and on the basilica of Golgotha on Calvary outside Jerusalem. * Christianity is introduced to the Kingdom of Iberia (modern-day Georgia) by Saint Nino (approximate date). ### 327 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Constantine the Great decrees that rural slaves can only be sold in the province where they reside, in order to resolve the shortage of labour in the Roman Empire. #### By topic ###### Religion * Construction begins on the cathedral of Antioch (Syria). * Approximate traditional date – Helena, mother of Constantine, returning from her pilgrimage to the Holy Land, founds Stavrovouni Monastery on Cyprus. ### 328 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * July 5 – Constantine's Bridge, built over the Danube between Sucidava (Corabia, Romania) and Oescus (Gigen, Bulgaria), is officially opened by the Roman architect Theophilus Patricius. * December 7 – Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr dies. His epitaph, the Namara inscription, is an important source for the Arabic Language. #### By topic ###### Religion * May 9 – Alexandria's patriarch bishop Alexander dies and is succeeded by his deacon Athanasius. ### 329 #### By place ###### China * The Han Zhao dynasty, a Southern Xiongnu state during the Sixteen Kingdoms, ends. #### By topic ###### Religion * Roman restrictions on joining the clergy are initiated. Significant people ------------------ * Constantine I Births ------ **320** * Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and politician (approximate date) * Constans I, Roman emperor (d. 350) * Flavian I, Patriarch of Antioch (d. 404) * Jin Jianwendi, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 372) * Oribasius, Greek physician (approximate date) * Tuoba Shiyijian, prince of the Tuoba Dai (d. 376) * Xie An, statesman of the Jin Dynasty (d. 385) **321** * Cheng of Jin (or **Shigen**), Chinese emperor (d. 342) * Du Lingyang (or **Chenggong**), Chinese empress (d. 341) * Valentinian I (**the Great**), Roman emperor (d. 375) **322** * Kang of Jin (or **Shitong**), Chinese emperor (d. 344) * Xun Xian (or **Lingze**), Chinese general (d. 359) **323** * Constans I, Roman consul and emperor (d. 350) **324** * Chu Suanzi, Chinese empress of the Jin dynasty (d. 384) **325** * Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman historian (approximate date) * Procopius, Roman general and usurper (approximate date) * Wang Meng (or **Jinglüe**), Chinese prime minister (d. 375) **326** * Constantius Gallus, Roman consul and statesman (d. 354) * Murong Chui (or **Daoming**), Chinese general (d. 396) **327** * Urban of Langres, French bishop and saint * Zhang Chonghua, Chinese ruler of Han Zhao (d. 353) **328** * Flavius Julius Valens, Roman emperor (d. 378) * Huan Chong, Chinese general and governor (d. 384) * Yuan Hong, Chinese historian and politician (d. 376) **329** * Gregory Nazianzus, Greek Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 390) Deaths ------ **320** * January 2 – Narcissus, Argeus, and Marcellinus, Roman Catholic martyrs and saints * January 29 – Valerius of Trèves, Roman Catholic priest and saint * February 6 – Dorothea of Alexandria, Roman Catholic virgin, martyr and saint * March 9 – 40 Martyrs of Sebaste * March 10 – Cyrion and Candidus, Armenian Orthodox priest and saints * July 11 – Januarius and Pelagia, Roman Catholic priests, martyrs and saints * November 29 – Saint Illuminata, Roman Catholic religious sister and saint * December 9 – Proculus of Verona, Roman Catholic priest and saint * Lactantius, Christian writer (approximate date) * Sima Bao, prince of the Jin Dynasty (b. 294) * Zhang Shi, Duke of Xiping **321** * Tuoba Yulü, Chinese prince of the Tuoba Dai * Zu Ti (or **Shizhi**), Chinese general and adviser (b. 266)**322** * Philogonius (or **Filogonius**), bishop of Antioch * Rabbah bar Rav Huna, Jewish Talmudist * Xu Kan, Chinese bandit leader and warlord * Yang Xianrong, Chinese empress **323** * January 3 – Yuan of Jin (or **Jingwen**), Chinese emperor (b. 276) * Tiberius Julius Rhadamsades, Roman prince and client king * Zhang Bin (or **Mengsun**), Chinese general and strategist **324** * Guo Pu, Chinese historian, poet and writer (b. 276) * Wang Dun (or **Chuzhong**), Chinese warlord (b. 266) * Zhang Mao, Chinese ruler of Former Liang (b. 277) **325** * October 18 – Ming of Jin, Chinese emperor (b. 299) * Iamblichus, Syrian philosopher and writer (b. 245) * Licinius, Roman consul and emperor (executed) * Li Ju (or **Shihui**), Chinese general and warlord * Sextus Martinianus, Roman Emperor (executed) * Tuoba Heru, Chinese prince of the Tuoba Dai **326** * Flavius Julius Crispus, son of Constantine I (b. 303) * Flavia Maxima Fausta, Roman empress (b. 289) * Licinius II, Roman consul and *caesar* (b. 315) * Liu (or **Xianlie**), Chinese empress of Han Zhao **327** * June 3 – Awtel, Eastern Christian monk and saint * Cleopatra, Christian martyr and saint (or 319) * Jonas and Barachisius, Persian martyrs * Melitius of Lycopolis, Christian bishop **328** * Alexander I, pope and patriarch of Alexandria * Papa (or **Papa bar Aggai**), Sassanid bishop * Su Jun, Chinese general and politician * Yu Wenjun, Chinese empress (b. 297) **329** * Han Huang, Chinese general and rebel * Liu Xi, Chinese emperor of Han Zhao * Liu Yao, Chinese emperor of Han Zhao * Liu Yin, Chinese prince of Han Zhao * Wen Jiao, Chinese general and governor

320s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/320s

Year **322** (**CCCXXII**) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Probianus and Iulianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1075 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 322 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By topic #### Technology * The first dependable representation of a horse rider with paired stirrups is found in China, in a Jin Dynasty tomb. Births ------ * Kang of Jin (or **Shitong**), Chinese emperor (d. 344) * Xun Xian (or **Lingze**), Chinese general (d. 359) Deaths ------ * Philogonius (or **Filogonius**), bishop of Antioch * Rabbah bar Rav Huna, Jewish Talmudist * Xu Kan, Chinese bandit leader and warlord * Yang Xianrong, Chinese empress

322

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/322

Year **413** (**CDXIII**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Herclianus and Lucius** (or, less frequently, **year 1166 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 413 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Heraclianus, Roman usurper, lands in Italy with a large army to fight Emperor Honorius. He is defeated in Umbria and flees to Carthage, where he is put to death by envoys of Honorius. * May 8 – Honorius signs an edict providing tax relief for the Italian provinces Tuscia, Campania, Picenum, Samnium, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria, which were plundered by the Visigoths. * The Visigoths, led by King Ataulf, conquer the towns of Toulouse and Bordeaux by force of arms. After a successful siege of Valence, he captures the usurper Jovinus and his brother Sebastianus. In Narbonne they are executed and their heads are sent to Honorius' court at Ravenna. #### Asia * Kumaragupta I succeeds his father Chandragupta II as emperor of the Gupta Empire (India). * Jangsu becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. ### By topic #### Religion * Augustine of Hippo, age 59, begins to write his spiritual book *De Civitate Dei* (City of God), as a reply to the charge that Christianity was responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire. Births ------ Deaths ------ * March 7 – Heraclianus, Roman usurper * September 13 – Marcellinus of Carthage, martyr and saint * Chandragupta II, emperor of the Gupta Empire * Gwanggaeto the Great, king of Goguryeo (b. 374) * Jovinus, Roman usurper of Gaul * Kumarajiva, Buddhist monk and translator (b. 344) * Prudentius, Roman Christian poet (b. 348) * Sebastianus, Roman usurper and brother of Jovinus * Qiao Zong, warlord and prince of Chengdu

413

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/413

Year **290** (**CCXC**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Valerius and Valerius** (or, less frequently, **year 1043 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 290 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Diocletian campaigns with success against Arabic enemies. * Following his victory over Emperor Maximian's fleet, the usurper Carausius invades the European mainland and re-establishes his military and administrative presence in northern Gaul. #### Asia * May 16 – Emperor Wu of Jin, founder of the Western Jin Dynasty, dies after a 25-year reign. He reunifies north and south, but gives away many dukedoms to his kinsmen. Crown Prince Sima Zhong succeeds his father, and has to deal with conflicts among the aristocratic families in China. Births ------ * Abramios the Recluse, Christian hermit and ascetic (d. 360) * Pappus of Alexandria, Greek mathematician (d. 350) * Vitus (or **Guido**), Roman hagiographer and martyr Deaths ------ * May 16 – Wu of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 236) * Tao Huang (or **Shiying**), Chinese general and politician

290

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/290

The **270s** decade ran from January 1, 270, to December 31, 279. Events ------ ### 270 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Claudius II Gothicus fights a drawn-out campaign against the Gothic raiders in the Balkans, with setbacks suffered on both sides. Eventually, many Goths die of plague and others are absorbed into the Roman legions. * Zenobia seizes control of Roman Arabia and Egypt. * Claudius dies of plague in Sirmium while preparing to fight the Vandals and Sarmatians, who have invaded Pannonia. He is succeeded by his brother Quintillus, who briefly holds power over the Roman Empire. * Victorinus besieges and sacks the city of Autun, which had declared allegiance to Claudius. * Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (or **Aurelian**), the cavalry commander who distinguished himself in the previous year at the Battle of Naissus (Serbia), usurps power in Sirmium and marches against Quintillus in Aquileia. Quintillus commits suicide. * Aurelius defeats an incursion by the Iuthungi into Raetia, defeating them as they attempted to re-cross the Danube. ###### Asia * Fan Hsiung, aka Pham Hung, comes to power in Champa and raids the Chinese-occupied territory of Tonkin. * Seocheon becomes ruler of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. ###### Africa * The Kingdom of Aksum (modern Ethiopia) begins minting its own gold coins to facilitate international trade, following the model of Roman coinage. * Anthony the Great, a Christian saint from Egypt, regarded as "Father of All Monks", enters the wilderness to become ascetic. ### 271 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * After an indecisive battle, Emperor Aurelian defeats the Vandals, and forces them from Pannonia, and across the Danube. * Battle of Placentia: The Iuthungi invade Italy and sack the city of Piacenza. A Roman army under Emperor Aurelian is ambushed and defeated. + Battle of Fano: The Iuthungi move towards a defenseless Rome. Aurelian rallies his men and defeats the Germanic tribes on the Metauro River, just inland of Fano. + Battle of Pavia: The Roman army pursues the Alamanni in Lombardy. Aurelian closes the passes in the Alps and encircles the invaders near Pavia. The Alamanni are destroyed and Aurelian receives the title *Germanicus Maximus*. * Following Aurelian's execution of Felicissimus, the financial minister of the state treasury, on the charge of corruption, the mint workers of the city of Rome, with senatorial support, lead an uprising against Aurelian. In bitter street-fighting on the Caelian Hill the rebels are defeated. The revolt is followed by a purge of Aurelian's senatorial opponents, including Urbanus. * Around this time, generals loyal to Aurelian defeat the usurpers Septimius in Dalmatia and Domitian II in southern Gaul. The Iuthungian invasion may have encouraged the spate of revolts. * Aurelian begins construction of a new defensive wall to protect Rome. The Aurelian Walls, 19 kilometers (12 mi), enclose the city with fortifications. * Perhaps around this time, Aurelian increases Rome's daily bread ration to nearly 1.5 pounds and adds pig fat to the list of foods distributed free to the populace. * Aurelian defeats a Gothic raid into the Balkans and then invades the Gothic homeland. Here he defeats the Goths again, killing one of their leaders, Cannabas, who may be Cniva, the Goth who had won the battle of Abritus, at which Emperor Decius was killed. * Aurelian withdraws Rome's administrative and military presence from Dacia (modern Romania), thereby rationalizing the Danube frontier and freeing resources for the forthcoming campaign against Zenobia. ###### Europe * Victorinus, Emperor of the Gallic Empire, is assassinated by one of his officers, Attitianus, reportedly for reasons of personal revenge. He is succeeded by Tetricus I, who is elevated with the help of Victorinus' mother Victoria. ###### Near East * Zenobia invades Asia Minor and seizes control of Cilicia and Galatia before being stalled in Bithynia. * Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire dies, and his successor, his son Hormizd I, leads an army against nomads in Sogdiana, perhaps taking command of a war that had begun under his father. (Note: Some scholars date Shapur's death to 270 or 272) #### By topic ###### Art and Science * King Shapur I builds the Academy of Gundishapur (Iran), which becomes the intellectual center of the Sassanid Empire. * A magnetic compass is first used in China. ### 272 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Aurelian launches a two-pronged invasion of the Palmyrene Empire, sending his commander Marcus Aurelius Probus to restore Roman rule in Egypt while he marches into Asia Minor. * As part of a strategy of clemency, Aurelian spares Tyana after capturing the city. This strategy encourages units under Zenobia to defect to Aurelian. * Battle of Immae: Aurelian defeats the Palmyrene heavy cavalry (*clibanarii*) near Antioch. Queen Zenobia flees under cover of darkness to Emesa (Syria). * Aurelian supports the bishops of Italy in deposing the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, who had been a supporter of Zenobia. This is the first recorded instance of an imperial intervention in an ecclesiastical dispute. * Battle of Emesa: Aurelian decisively defeats the Palmyrene army. * Aurelian besieges Palmyra. Zenobia attempts to escape to Persia but is captured on the Euphrates. Palmyra surrenders soon after. * Following a series of trials held in Emesa, Cassius Longinus and other advisors of Zenobia are executed for conspiring against Aurelian. #### By topic ###### Religion * Dometius succeeds Titus as Patriarch of Constantinople. * Saint Denis, first Bishop of Paris, and two of his disciples are beheaded on the road to the Temple of Mercury that stands atop a hill outside of the city. The hill will later be called Montmartre (Mountain of Martyrs) in Lutetia (modern Paris). * Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch. ### 273 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Marcus Claudius Tacitus, future Roman Emperor, is consul in Rome. * Emperor Aurelian defeats an incursion by the Carpi into Moesia and Thrace. * Aurelian sacks the city of Palmyra after putting down a second revolt. * In bitter street-fighting, Aurelian crushes a rebellion in Alexandria by Firmus, a sympathizer of Palmyra. Firmus is strangled to death. ###### Persia * King Hormizd I of Persia dies after a brief reign in which he has shown tolerance toward the ascetic, anti-materialist Manichean faith. He is succeeded by his brother Bahram I, who has been governing the province of Atropatene. Bahram proceeds to crush a rebellion by various vassal kings. ### 274 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Battle of Châlons: The Emperor Aurelian invades Gaul to campaign against the Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain). In the Catalaunian Plains, the Romano-Gallic Emperor Tetricus I surrenders to Aurelian and leaves his army without an emperor. The Gallic army is then crushed by Aurelian in a major battle. With the conquests of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again. However, the heavy losses incurred by the Gallic forces compromises the Rhine frontier. * Rome greets Aurelian as *Restitutor Orbis* ("Restorer of the World") and accords him a magnificent triumph (victory procession), which is graced by his captives Zenobia, Tetricus I, and his son Tetricus II. * Aurelian reforms the Roman currency, replacing the denarius with a new version of the antoninianus that has a slightly improved silver-to-copper ratio. This overhaul of the currency system causes hyper-inflation. * Germanic tribes take advantage of the destroyed Roman forces of the Rhine to raid Gaul. * December 25 – Aurelian has the Temple of the Sun dedicated to Sol Invictus, on the third day after the solstice and day of rebirth of the Sun. This religion, which is in essence monotheistic, becomes the state religion of Rome. ###### Africa * The Kingdom of Aksum attains great prosperity thanks to its control of Red Sea trade. #### By topic ###### Religion * March 2 – Mani, a sage of Persia, dies at Gundeshapur after 30 years of preaching his "heresy" at the court of the late Sassanian King Shapur I and on long journeys to Khorasan, India and China. He is executed or allowed to die in prison, and claims to be a prophet of God. Mani combines Zoroastrian dualism with Christian theology, and his disciples gain wide support for Manichaeism, despite opposition from Byzantine and Roman Emperors. * December 30 – Pope Felix I dies in Rome after a 5-year reign. ###### Transportation * Japanese shipwrights build a 100-foot oar-powered vessel for Emperor Ōjin. The Japanese will not use sails for another seven centuries. ### 275 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Aurelian puts down unrest in Gaul, and defeats Germanic incursions into Gaul and Raetia (these problems had been caused by Aurelian's defeat and overthrow of the Gallic Empire). * The Goths begin to raid Thrace and Asia Minor. Aurelian begins a campaign against the Goths in Thrace, but he is then assassinated near Byzantium (Turkey) by some of his officers. Aurelian had developed a reputation for punishing corruption with severity, and his secretary Eros was under suspicion. As a result, Eros, fearing for his life, had forged a list of high-ranking officers marked for execution. In this way, the secretary tricked the officers into assassinating Aurelian, and they then fled into Asia Minor to avoid the wrath of the soldiers. Unusual for the period, the imperial field army defers to the Senate to choose a successor. * September 25 – Marcus Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed Emperor by the Senate; his half brother Marcus Annius Florianus becomes praetorian prefect. * Tacitus marches into Asia Minor to fight the Goths and track down the faction responsible for assassinating Aurelian. ###### Asia * The Pallava Dynasty begins in Southern India. #### By topic ###### Religion * January 4 – Eutychian succeeds Felix I as the 27th pope of Rome. ### 276 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Tacitus doubles the silver content of the aurelianianus, and halves its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. They carry the value marks X.I. * Tacitus campaigns successfully against the Goths who have invaded Asia Minor, and his half-brother, the praetorian prefect Marcus Annius Florianus, continues the campaign. * Tacitus' cousin Maximinus administers Syria in a harsh manner, and is assassinated by local men of power, who are joined in the conspiracy by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian in the previous year. * Tacitus dies in Tyana, Cappadocia. He either dies of illness, or is murdered by the faction responsible for having assassinated Aurelian and Maximinus. * Florianus becomes Roman Emperor with the support of the Senate, but a general in the east, Marcus Aurelius Probus, usurps power against him. Florianus breaks off his campaign against the Goths and marches east from the Bosporus with support from the Roman legion's in Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy. * Florianus holds power for some weeks and fights indecisively against Probus in Cilicia, but his soldiers, many of whom are from the colder Rhine and Danube frontiers, suffer from heat and disease. He is overthrown and then assassinated by his own troops near Tarsus (Turkey), in collusion with Probus. Probus, age 44, is proclaimed new Emperor of Rome. * Probus returns the aurelianianus to the tariffing of Aurelian. * Probus invites the faction responsible for the murders of Aurelian and Tacitus to a banquet, only to massacre them. He then arrests a surviving conspirator and has him burned alive. ###### Sassanid Empire * King Bahram I of Persia dies after a 3-year reign, in which the Zoroastrian priests at Ctesiphon (Iran) put pressure on him to persecute Buddhists, Christians, and Manichaeans. He is succeeded by his son Bahram II. ###### Asia * Mahasena reigns in Ceylon. Orthodox and unpopular, he tries to introduce Mahayana Buddhism to the country. ### 277 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Probus travels with his army west across the Sea of Marmara (Turkey), and through the provinces of Thrace, Moesia, and Pannonia to defeat the Goths along the lower Danube. He acquires from the troops the title of *Gothicus*. * Probus enters Rome, to have his position as Emperor ratified by the Senate. ###### China * Tuoba Xilu succeeds his father Tuoba Liwei, as chieftain of the Tuoba clan. ### 278 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Probus defeats the Alamanni, advancing through the Neckar Valley. He expels the Franks from Gaul, and reorganizes the Roman defenses on the Rhine. * Probus resettles the Germanic tribes in the devastated provinces of the Roman Empire. He adopts the titles of *Gothicus Maximus* and *Germanicus Maximus*. * Piracy along the coast of Lycia and Pamphylia: The Romans besiege the city of Cremna (Pisidia) and kill the Isaurian robber Lydius. ### 279 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Probus defeats the Burgundians and Vandals, in Raetia and Pannonia (modern Switzerland and Hungary). ###### Asia * Winter – Conquest of Wu by Jin: The Jin Dynasty conquers Eastern Wu, the last of the three contending powers in China during the Three Kingdoms Period. Significant people ------------------ * Aurelian (Aurelianus) * Claudius II Gothicus * Quintillus * Tacitus * Florianus * Probus Births ------ **270** * March 15 – Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) (d. 343) * Liu Kun, Chinese general and poet (d. 318) * Rabbah bar Nahmani, Babylonian 'amora * Saint Spyridon, bishop of Trimythous (d. 348) **271** * Sima Wei, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 291) **272** * February 27 – Constantine the Great, Roman emperor (d. 337) * Wei Shuo (or **Mouyi**), Chinese calligrapher (d. 349) **274** * Li Xiong, Chinese emperor of Cheng Han (d. 334) * Shi Le, Chinese emperor of the Jie state (d. 333) **275** * Saint George, Roman soldier and Christian martyr (approximate date) **276** * Gregory the Elder, bishop of Nazianzus (approximate date) * Guo Pu, Chinese historian, poet and writer (d. 324) * Wang Dao, Chinese politician and statesman (d. 339) * Yuan of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 323) **277** * Justus of Beauvais, Gallo-Roman martyr (approximate date) * Sima Ai, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 304) * Zhang Mao, Chinese ruler of Former Liang (d. 324) **278** * Sima Yu, Chinese crown prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 300) **279** * Sima Ying, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 306) Deaths ------ **270** * Claudius II (**Gothicus**), Roman emperor (b. 214) * Gregory Thaumaturgus, Christian bishop and theologian * Luo Xian (or **Lingze**), Chinese general and politician * Plotinus, Greek philosopher and founder Neoplatonism * Qiao Zhou (or **Yunnan**), Chinese official and politician * Quintillus, Roman emperor and brother of Claudius II * Shapur I (**the Great**), ruler of the Sassanid Empire * Shi Ji (or **Zhu Ji**), Chinese general and governor * Sun Fen, Chinese prince of the Eastern Wu state **271** * Ding Feng, Chinese general and politician * Domitian II, emperor of the Gallic Empire * Felicissimus, Roman financial minister (*rationalis*) * Hormizd I (or **Ohrmazd**), ruler of the Sassanid Empire * Liu Shan, Chinese emperor of the Shu Han state (b. 207) * Pei Xiu, Chinese official, writer, geographer and cartographer (b. 224) * Sima Wang, Chinese general and prince of the Jin dynasty (b. 205) * Victorinus, emperor of the Gallic Empire **272** * Liu Qubei, Chinese prince of the Southern Xiongnu * Shapur I (**the Great**), king of the Sassanid Empire * Sabbas Stratelates, Roman general and martyr * Sima Fu, Chinese prince and statesman (b. 180) * Wan Yu, Chinese chancellor and politician **273** * June 1 – Reverianus, Christian bishop * Callinicus, Greek historian and sophist * Cassius Longinus, Greek philosopher * Dexippus, Greek general and historian * Hormizd I, king of the Sassanid Empire * Septimius Antiochus, Roman usurper * Wei Zhao, Chinese historian and scholar (b. 204) **274** * March 2 – Mani, prophet and founder of Manichaeism (b. 216) * August 25 – Yang Yan (or **Qiongzhi**), Chinese empress (b. 238) * December 30 – Felix I, bishop of Rome * Bahram I, king of the Sassanid Empire * Cao Fang, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (b. 232) * Lu Kang (or **Youjie**), Chinese general and politician (b. 226) * Septimia Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (b. 240) * Xun Yi (or **Jingqian**), Chinese official and politician **275** * Aurelian, Roman emperor (b. 214 or 215) * Peroz I Kushanshah, ruler of the Sasanian Kingdom * Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (b. 240) **276** * Bahram I, king of the Sassanid Empire * Marcus Annius Florianus, Roman emperor * Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Roman Emperor * Tiberius Julius Synges, Roman client king **277** * Tuoba Liwei, chieftain of the Tuoba clan (China) **278** * December 27 – Yang Hu (or **Shuzi**), Chinese general and politician (b. 221) * Cao Yu (or **Pengzu**), Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 211) * Fu Xuan (or **Xiuyi**), Chinese historian, poet and politician (b. 217) * Xi Zheng (or **Lingxian**), Chinese essayist, poet and politician * Yang Huiyu, Chinese empress of the Jin Dynasty (b. 214) **279** * Johanan bar Nappaha, Jewish compiler of the Talmud * Tiberius Julius Teiranes, Roman prince and client king * Tufa Shujineng, Chinese chieftain of Jin Dynasty

270s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/270s

Year **298** (**CCXCVIII**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Faustus and Gallus** (or, less frequently, **year 1051 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 298 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Spring: Emperor Diocletian retakes Alexandria and crushes the usurpation of Aurelius Achilleus. * Diocletian then travels into Upper Egypt and possibly campaigns on the Nubian frontier. In either this year or in 300/301, he makes agreements with the Meroitic Nubians and the Blemmyes. He agrees to pay subsidies to both peoples, and he cedes the Dodecashoenos to the Nubians on the understanding that the Nubians will defend the region against the Blemmyes. * Caesar Galerius restores Tiridates III to the throne of Armenia and invades the Sassanid Empire. His army marches through Adiabene, Atropatene, Susiana and Lower Mesopotamia. He then retakes the strategically important city of Nisibis in Upper Mesopotamia. #### Korea * The manufacture of cultured silk becomes popular from Korea to Japan. * Bunseo becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. * Girim becomes the king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. Births ------ * Athanasius of Alexandria, Egyptian patriarch (d. 373) Deaths ------ * Aurelius Achilleus, Roman usurper * Cassian of Tangier, Christian martyr * Chaekgye of Baekje, Korean ruler * Marcellus of Tangier, Christian martyr * Yurye of Silla (or **Yuri**), Korean ruler

298

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/298

Year **417** (**CDXVII**) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Honorius and Constantius** (or, less frequently, **year 1170 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 417 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * January 1 – Emperor Honorius forces his half-sister Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his general (*magister militum*). He is appointed *patricius* and becomes a prominent member of the House of Theodosius. * The Visigoths are granted Aquitaine, and become allies (*foederati*) of the Western Roman Empire. King Wallia establishes his capital at Toulouse. #### Asia * Nulji becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. ### By topic #### Religion * January – Pope Innocent I condemns Pelagianism, and excommunicates the ascetic Pelagius. * March 12 – Innocent I dies after a 16-year reign in which he has restored relations between the sees of Rome and Antioch, enforced celibacy of the clergy, and maintained the right of the bishop of Rome to judge appeals from other churches. Innocent is succeeded by Zosimus as the 41st pope. Births ------ * Peter the Iberian, Georgian theologian and Saint (approximate date) * Justa Grata Honoria, daughter of Constantius III (approximate date) Deaths ------ * March 12 – Pope Innocent I * Li Gao, Chinese general of the state Western Liang (b. 351) * Yao Hong, last emperor of the Qiang state Later Qin (b. 388)

417

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/417

Year **255** (**CCLV**) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Valerianus and Gallienus** (or, less frequently, **year 1008 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 255 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### China * Sima Shi quells Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin's rebellion. * March 23 – Sima Shi passes away. * Sima Zhao, Sima Shi's younger brother, inherits his brother's authority. ### By topic #### Science * Ma Jun, Chinese mechanical engineer from Cao Wei, invents the south-pointing chariot, a path-finding directional compass vehicle that uses a differential gear, not magnetics. Births ------ * January 6 – Marcellus I, bishop of Rome (d. 309) * Dorotheus of Tyre, Syrian bishop and martyr (d. 362) * Zhang Gui, Chinese governor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 314) * Zuo Fen, Chinese poet of the Western Jin Dynasty (d. 300) Deaths ------ * February 23 – Guo Huai (or **Boji**), Chinese general * March 16 – Guanqiu Jian, Chinese general and politician * March 23 – Sima Shi, Chinese general and regent (b. 208) * Fu Gu (or **Lanshi**), Chinese official and politician (b. 209) * Liu Zan (or **Zhengming**), Chinese general (b. 183) * Sun Luyu (or **Xiaohu**), Chinese princess

255

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/255

Year **299** (**CCXCIX**) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Diocletian and Maximian** (or, less frequently, **year 1052 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 299 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Peace of Nisibis: Emperor Diocletian signs a treaty with the Persian king Narseh that will last for 40 years. The Persians accept Roman dominion over Armenia, the Caucasus, and Upper Mesopotamia. The pro-Roman ruler Tiridates III receives all of Armenia as far as the border with Atropatene. Mirian III of the Kingdom of Iberia is made a Roman client, and at some point in time, as a result of the treaty, Caucasian Albania will follow suit. Rome also gains five satrapies beyond the Tigris, which are perhaps given to Tiridates to administer. * To celebrate his victory over the Persians, Galerius commissions the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki (modern Greece). * In this or the following year, Galerius campaigns with success against Sarmatians and the Marcomanni, attacking through a swamp to defeat a Sarmatian army. * Having first crossed into Africa in 296, Emperor Maximian concludes his campaigns against the Quinquegentiani and other Berbers. His campaigns had ranged as far as Mauretania in the west and Tripolitania in the east. Julianus, a rebel leader in Africa, throws himself into a fire after the Romans breach the walls of his stronghold. * Returning to Rome in triumph, Maximian commissions the Baths of Diocletian in honour of his 'brother' Diocletian. * Diocletian expels Christians from the Roman army. #### China * Empress Jia Nanfeng frames Crown Prince Yu for treason and has him deposed. Births ------ * Jin Mingdi, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 325) Deaths ------ * Judah bar Ezekiel, Babylonian amora (b. 220) * Qi Wannian, Chinese chieftain and rebel leader

299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/299

Year **257 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Regulus and Blasio** (or, less frequently, **year 497 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 257 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * The Romans attack Sardinia and try to capture it from the Carthaginians. * The Battle of Tyndaris is fought between the Roman fleet (with Gaius Atilius Regulus in command) and the Carthaginian fleet off Tyndaris (modern Tindari) in Sicily. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, has allowed Tyndaris to be a base for the Carthaginians. However, after this battle, the town falls to Roman forces. #### China * The Qin siege of Handan, the capital of the State of Zhao: * The State of Chu and the State of Wei send armies to assist Zhao against the Qin, and they defeat the Qin army of Wang He outside Handan. This forces Wang He to lift the siege. * The Qin general Bai Qi is executed for his refusal to take command of the siege. #### Vietnam * Thục Phán (An Dương Vương), Chief of the Thục Tribe of the Âu Việts, defeats the Văn Lang Confederacy and unifies all Âu Việt and Lạc Việt tribes, thus founding the Kingdom of Âu Lạc and the Thục dynasty. Births ------ * Aristophanes of Byzantium, Greek scholar and grammarian (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Bai Qi, Chinese general of the Qin State (Warring States Period)

257 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/257_BC

Year **250** (**CCL**) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Traianus and Gratus** (or, less frequently, **year 1003 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 250 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date). * The Goths under King Cniva invade Moesia. They cross the Danube and lay siege to Novae and Marcianopolis. * Battle of Augusta Traiana: The Romans lose the battle against the Goths. * Cniva lays siege to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv). After a long resistance, Cniva conquers the city and slays its one hundred thousand inhabitants. * The Alamanni drive the Romans from the modern area of Donau-Ries. * An epidemic begins in Ethiopia, moves into Egypt and the Roman colonies in North Africa, and spreads through the Roman Empire (named the Plague of Cyprian, after St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage). #### Africa * The Kingdom of Aksum (Axum) takes control of commerce on the Red Sea. #### Asia * The earliest Chinese references to a device known as "emperor's south-pointing carriage" date to this period. #### Mesomerica * Teotihuacán is rebuilt as a four-quartered cosmogram by Zapotec architects brought from Monte Albán in Oaxaca. * Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization begins. ### By topic #### Art and science * Diophantus writes *Arithmetica*, the first systematic treatise on algebra. * Approximate date + The family portrait medallion, traditionally called the *Family of Vunnerius Keramus*, is made (it is later placed in the Brescia Cross, and then in the Museo Civico dell'Etá Cristiana, Brescia). + The Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus, depicting battle between the Romans and the Barbarians, is made for use in Rome (it is later moved to the collection of the National Roman Museum). + The Igel Column is erected at Trier in Germany. #### Religion * January 3 – Decian persecution of Christians is initiated when Emperor Decius orders everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the gods of religion in ancient Rome. On January 20, Pope Fabian becomes one of the first martyrs of this persecution. * Possible date – Denis, a bishop of Paris, is martyred by beheading. Births ------ * March 31 – Constantius Chlorus, Roman emperor (d. 306) * Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, Roman emperor (d. 311) * Lu Jing (or **Shiren**), Chinese general and writer (d. 280) * Maximian (**Herculius**), Roman consul and emperor (d. 310) * Zuo Si (or **Taichong**), Chinese poet and writer (d. 305) Deaths ------ * January 20 – Fabian (or **Fabianus**), pope of Rome * Du Qiong (or **Boyu**), Chinese official and astronomer * Faustus, Abibus and Dionysius, Christian martyrs * Marcus Minucius Felix, Roman apologist and writer * Peter, Andrew, Paul and Denise, Christian martyrs * Secundian, Marcellian and Verian, Christian martyrs * Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha, Christian martyrs * Zhu Ju, Chinese general and chancellor (b. 194)

250

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/250

Year **251** (**CCLI**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Traianus and Etruscus** (or, less frequently, **year 1004 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 251 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * July 1 – Battle of Abritus: The Goths defeat Emperor Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus, on swampy ground in the Dobruja (Moesia). * In Rome, Hostilian, son of Decius, succeeds his father, while Trebonianus Gallus is proclaimed Emperor by the troops. Gallus accepts him as co-emperor, but an outbreak of plague strikes the city, and kills Hostilian. * The prosperity of Roman Britain declines during this period, as the Germanic tribes of the Franks and Saxons, whose homelands are in Friesland and the Low Countries, make raids around the southeast coast. * Gallus makes peace with the Goths; he permits them to keep their plunder, and offers them a bribe not to return. * A 15-year plague begins in the Roman Empire. #### Persia * Sassanid King Shapur I orders an invasion of Syria, with the intent of finally capturing the city of Antioch during the campaign of 251–254. #### China * Wang Ling's rebellion against the Wei regent Sima Yi is quelled. * Sima Yi passes away in Luoyang. * Sima Shi, Sima Yi's eldest son, inherits his father's authority. ### By topic #### Religion * March – Pope Cornelius succeeds Pope Fabian as the 21st pope. Births ------ * January 12 – Anthony the Great, Christian monk and saint (d. 356) Deaths ------ * February 5 – Cao Lin, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state * June – August + Decius, Roman emperor (killed after the battle of Abritus) + Herennius Etruscus, Roman emperor and son of Decius * June 15 – Wang Ling, Chinese general and politician * August 22 – Zhen, Chinese empress of the Cao Wei state * September 7 – Sima Yi, Chinese general and regent (b. 179) * Agatha of Sicily, Christian martyr and saint (approximate date) * Cao Biao, Chinese prince of the Cao Wei state (b. 195) * Deng Zhi, Chinese general, politician and diplomat * Hostilian, Roman emperor (of plague in Rome) * Lü Yi, Chinese official, governor and politician

251

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/251

Year **276 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Gurges and Clepsina** (or, less frequently, **year 478 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 276 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * The Egyptian King Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I (daughter of the late King Lysimachus of Thrace) is accused, probably at instigation of Ptolemy II's sister (who also has the name Arsinoe), of plotting his murder and is exiled by the King. Arsinoe then marries her own brother, a customary practice in Egypt, but scandalous to the Greeks. The suffix "Philadelphoi" ("Brother-Loving") consequently is added to the names of King Ptolemy II and Queen Arsinoe II. The former queen, Arsinoe I, is banished to Coptos, a city of Upper Egypt near the Wadi Hammamat, while her rival adopts her children. * The first of the Syrian Wars starts between Egypt's Ptolemy II and Seleucid emperor Antiochus I Soter. The Egyptians invade northern Syria, but Antiochus defeats and repels his opponent's army. #### Sicily * Pyrrhus negotiates with the Carthaginians to end the fighting between them in Sicily. The Carthaginians are inclined to come to terms with Pyrrhus, but he demands that Carthage abandon all of Sicily and make the Libyan Sea the boundary between Carthage and the Greeks. Meanwhile, he begins to display despotic behaviour towards the Sicilian Greeks and soon Sicilian opinion moves against him. Therefore, fearing that his successes in Sicily may lead him to become the despot of their country, the Syracusans ask Pyrrhus to leave Sicily. He does so, and returns to the Italian mainland, noting that he expects Sicily to be a "fair wrestling ring" for Carthage and Rome. #### China * General Bai Qi of the State of Qin attacks the State of Wei and captures two cities. * General Lian Po of the State of Zhou captures the Wei city of Qi. Births ------ * Eratosthenes, Greek mathematician, geographer and astronomer (d. 194 BC) Deaths ------ *

276 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/276_BC

The **420s** decade ran from January 1, 420, to December 31, 429. Events ------ ### 420 #### By place ###### Europe * The legendary Pharamond is said to have led the Franks across the Rhine. ###### Persia * Yazdegerd I dies after a 21-year reign, and is succeeded by his son Bahram V, who becomes head of the Persian Empire. * Abdas, bishop of Susa, is accused of burning down one of the fire temples of Ahura Mazda, and after refusing to rebuild it, he is executed, under orders of Shah Yazdegerd I. ###### Asia * July 10 – The Jin Dynasty ends in China. Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Liu Song) becomes the first ruler of the Liu Song Dynasty. Nanjing is reinstated as the capital of northern China. * The Southern Dynasties begin in China. * Guisin becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. ### 421 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * February 8 – Constantius III is appointed co-emperor (*Augustus*) with his ineffectual brother-in-law, Honorius, and becomes the real ruler of the Western Roman Empire. * March 25 – Venice is founded at twelve o'clock noon (according to legend) with the dedication of the first church, San Giacomo, at the islet of Rialto (Italy). * June 7 – Emperor Theodosius II marries Aelia Eudocia, a woman of Greek origin. The wedding is celebrated at Constantinople with chariot racing in the Hippodrome. * September 2 – Constantius III dies suddenly of an illness; his wife Galla Placidia becomes, for the second time, a widow. She departs with her children Grata Honoria and Valentinian to the court of Constantinople. ###### Europe * Rugila, chieftain of the Huns, attacks the dioceses of Dacia and Thrace (Balkans). Theodosius II allows Pannonian Ostrogoths to settle in Thrace, to defend the Danube frontier. * The Franks conquer new territories in their kingdom and sack the old Roman capital *Augusta Treverorum* (modern Trier). ###### Persia * Roman–Sassanid War: Theodosius II starts a war against the Sassanids, sending an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and invades Mesopotamia. * Autumn – Ardaburius devastates Arzanene (Armenia) and forces the Persians to retreat to Nisibis (Syria). King Bahram V allies himself with the Lakhmid Arabs of Hirah. ### 422 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * End of the Roman–Sassanid War: Emperor Theodosius II signs a 100-year peace treaty with Persia after 2 years of war. He agrees to a *status quo ante bellum* ("the state in which things were before the war"), and both parties guarantee liberty of religion in their territories. * March 3 – Theodosius II issues a law to form provisions in peacetime. He instructs landowners leasing towers in the Theodosian Walls to assist with the build-up of emergency goods. Theodosius pays an annual tribute of 350 pounds of gold to the Huns in order to buy peace. * Theodosius II receives a statue at Hebdomon, military parade ground on the shores of the Propontis, just outside Constantinople. On its base (fragments are now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum), an inscription praises him as “everywhere and forever victorious.” * The walls of Rome's Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) crack during an earthquake. ###### Europe * The Roman army invades Gaul; they capture and execute the Frankish king Theudemeres with his family. ###### Asia * Shao Di, age 16, eldest son of Wu Di, succeeds his father as emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (China). #### By topic ###### Art * Petrus, bishop of Illyria, starts construction of the Church of Santa Sabina (approximate date). ###### Religion * September 4 – Pope Boniface I dies after a 4-year reign that was interrupted for 15 weeks, by the faction of the antipope Eulalius. He is succeeded by Celestine I as the 43rd pope. * Approximate date – A monastic community is established at the Maijishan Grottoes. ### 423 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * August 15 – Emperor Honorius, age 38, dies at Ravenna of dropsy, perhaps pulmonary edema. With no children to claim the throne, Joannes, *primicerius notariorum* ("chief notary", head of the civil service), seizes the throne of the Western Roman Empire, and is declared emperor. Among his supporters are Flavius Aetius, Roman general (*magister militum*). Joannes' rule is accepted in the dioceses of Gaul, Hispania and Italia, but not in Africa. * Winter – Emperor Theodosius II refuses to recognize Joannes as emperor, and prepares for war. He mobilizes an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and his son Flavius Aspar. #### By topic ###### Religion * Theodoret becomes bishop of Cyrrhus (Syria). He converts more than 1,000 Marcionites in his diocese. ### 424 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * October 23 – Emperor Theodosius II nominates his cousin Valentinian, age 5, the imperial title *nobilissimus Caesar* ("most noble") of the Western Roman Empire. Valentinian is betrothed to Theodosius's own daughter Licinia Eudoxia, who is only 2 years old. * Roman usurper Joannes sends Flavius Aetius, governor of the Palace (*cura palatii*), to the Huns to ask for their assistance. After negotiating, he returns to Italy with a large force. * Winter – A Roman army under the command of Ardaburius leaves Thessalonica (modern Central Macedonia) and marches for Northern Italy, where they make their base at Aquileia. ###### China * Shao Di, age 18, is deposed by a group of high officials and succeeded by his younger brother Wen Di as emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty. Shao is exiled to Suzhou, and later killed by an assassin. ### 425 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Summer – Joannes, Roman usurper, is defeated at the fortified city of Ravenna and brought to Aquileia. After a humiliating parade on a donkey and the insults of the populace, he is executed. * October 23 – Valentinian III, six-year-old son of Galla Placidia, is installed as emperor (*Augustus*) of the Western Roman Empire. Real power is in the hands of his mother who becomes a regent. * Flavius Aetius leads a force of Huns (60,000 men) into Northern Italy. He reaches a compromise with Placidia, in return for obtaining the rank commander-in-chief (*magister militum*) in Gaul. * The Huns advance unopposed on Constantinople, but are halted by a plague that decimates their hordes (see 433). ###### israel * The Sanhedrin is disbanded by the Roman Empire. #### By topic ###### Arts and Sciences * Last known usage of Demotic script in Egypt. * c. 425–426 – Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is built. ###### Education * February 27 – The University of Constantinople is founded by emperor Theodosius II at the urging of his wife Aelia Eudocia. ###### Religion * Buddhism begins to spread to Southeast Asia. ### 426 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Theodosius II gives orders to destroy the buildings and pagan temples at Olympia (Greece). The statue of Zeus is brought to Constantinople. ###### Europe * Flavius Aetius, Roman general (*magister militum*), starts a 10-year campaign against the Visigoths in southern Gaul. * King Gunderic of the Vandals accepts the request of the Alans in Hispania to become their ruler (approximate date). ###### Mesoamerica * K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' becomes the founder of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization at Copán (modern Honduras). ###### Religion * Augustine of Hippo publishes the *De Civitate Dei*, City of God. * Sisinnius becomes Archbishop of Constantinople. ### 427 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Flavius Aetius, Roman general (*magister militum*), arrives in southern Gaul with an army (40,000 men) and defeats the Visigoths under King Theodoric I, who are besieging the strategic city of Arles. * Bonifacius, Roman governor (Last of the Romans), revolts in Africa against Emperor Valentinian III. Under the influence of Aetius, he is convicted of treason by empress-mother Galla Placidia. ###### Europe * The Roman province of Pannonia Prima is finally assimilated into the Hunnic Empire. ###### Asia * The Ephthalites (White Huns) invade Western Asia and reduce the Sasanian Empire threat to the Eastern Roman Empire. King Bahram V sends an expeditionary force into Khorasan. * King Jangsu transfers the Goguryeo capital from Gungnae City (modern Ji'an, Jilin) on the banks of the Yalu River to Pyongyang (modern Korea). * Biyu becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. ### 428 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Flavius Felix is elected consul for the Western Empire and issues consular diptychs during his political office. ###### Europe * King Gunderic, age 49, dies after a reign of 21 years, and is succeeded by his half-brother Genseric. He is styled with the title *Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum* ("King of the Vandals and Alans"). Genseric increases his power and wealth in the residence of the province of Hispania Baetica (Southern Spain). * King Vortigern invites a number of Germanic warriors to aid him in consolidating his position in Britain, according to the Historia Brittonum. He hires Saxons who are probably settled in Kent as mercenaries to fight against the Picts and the Scots beyond Hadrian's Wall. * Chlodio, king of the Salian Franks, invades Northern Gaul and defeats the Roman army at Cambrai. He extends his kingdom south to the River Somme and makes Tournai (modern Belgium) his residence. Frankish expansion changes the borders, founding Francia. ###### Asia * Artaxias IV, last king of Greater Armenia, is deposed by Bahram V. The Arshakuni Dynasty ends and the kingdom becomes a province of the Persian Empire. #### By topic ###### Astronomy * October 26 – The planet Venus occults the planet Jupiter. ###### Religion * April 10 – Nestorius is made patriarch of Constantinople. He preaches a new doctrine that will be called Nestorianism. It makes a distinction between the divine and human natures of Jesus but comes under immediate attack from pope Celestine I and Cyril of Alexandria. * Hydatius becomes bishop of *Aquae Flaviae* in Gallaecia (modern Chaves) in Portugal. * John succeeds Theodotus as patriarch of Antioch, and gives his support to Nestorius. * Euthymius the Great builds a monastery in Palestine, near the Dead Sea. ### 429 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Spring – The Vandals, led by Genseric ("Caesar King"), invade North Africa. They land with a force of 80,000 men including Alans, and Germanic tribesmen with their families from the Iberian Peninsula, across the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. The Vandal fleet raids the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, and blockades the grain and oil supply to Italy. * Genseric seizes lands from the Berbers and destroys church buildings all over Mauretania. He goes on a rampage forcing Bonifacius, Roman governor, to retreat to the fortified coastal town of Hippo Regius (modern Annaba). * Bonifacius, weakened by the civil war against empress Galla Placidia, sues for peace and is elevated to the rank of supreme commander (*magister militum*) of Africa. * Emperor Theodosius II starts to reform the Codex Theodosianus in Constantinople. He establishes a committee to codify all Roman laws. All funds raised by Jews to support schools have to be turned over to the state treasury. * The Temple of Goddess Athena on the Acropolis of Athens is sacked. Athenian Pagans are persecuted. #### By topic ###### Literature ###### Religion * A Gaulish assembly of bishops dispatch Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of Troyes to Britain to visit the island. To satisfy pope Celestine I they combat the Pelagian heresy. * Hilary succeeds his kinsman Honoratus and becomes archbishop of Arles. * Domnus II, future patriarch of Antioch, is ordained as a deacon. Significant people ------------------ Births ------ **420** * Anthemius, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Ecdicius, Roman general (*magister militum*) * Libius Severus, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Majorian, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Palladius, *caesar* and son of Petronius Maximus * Valamir, king of the Ostrogoths (he is also thought to have been born in 425 AD) * Yuan Can, high official of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 477) **422** * August 8 – Casper, ruler of the Maya city of Palenque * Genevieve, patron saint of Paris (approximate date) * Licinia Eudoxia, Roman empress (d. 493) **423** * Theodosius the Cenobiarch, monk and founder of the Monastery of St. Theodosius (approximate date) **425** * Iamblichus, Syrian philosopher * Zeno, Byzantine Emperor (approximate date) **426** * Liu Shao, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 453) **427** * Erbin of Dumnonia, Brythonic king (approximate date) * Qi Gaodi, Chinese emperor of the Southern Qi Dynasty (d. 482) * Wang Xianyuan, empress and wife of Song Xiaowudi (d. 464) **428** * Tuoba Huang, prince of the Xianbei state Northern Wei (d. 451) **429** * Liu Jun, prince of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 453) * Zu Chongzhi, Chinese mathematician (d. 500) Deaths ------ **420** * January 21 – Yazdegerd I, king of the Sassanid Empire * February 26 – Saint Porphyry, bishop of Gaza (Palestine) * September 30 – Saint Jerome, priest and translator of the Bible * Saint Abdas, bishop of Susa (Iran) * Li Xin, duke of the Chinese state Western Liang * Orosius, Christian historian and theologian (approximate date) * Pelagius, British monk (approximate date) * Yao, empress consort and wife of Mingyuan **421** * September 2 – Constantius III, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Jin Gongdi, last emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 386) * Li Xun, ruler of the Chinese state Western Liang * Mary of Egypt, patron saint (approximate date) * Ravina I, rabbi (teacher) and Jewish Talmudist **422** * September 4 – Pope Boniface I * Abraham of Cyrrhus, Syrian hermit and bishop * Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler (approximate date) * Theudemeres, king of the Franks (approximate date) * Wu Di, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 363) **423** * August 15 – Honorius, Roman Emperor (b. 384) * December 23 – Ming Yuan Di, ruler of the Xianbei state Northern Wei (b. 392) * Eulalius, antipope of Rome * Tufa, Chinese princess and wife of Qifu Chipan * Xiao Wenshou, empress dowager of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 343) **425** * November 5 – Atticus, archbishop of Constantinople * Gamliel VI, last *Nasi* (head of the Sanhedrin) * Helian Bobo, emperor of the Chinese Xiongnu state Xia (born 381) * Joannes, Roman usurper * Mavia, Arab warrior-queen * Sulpicius Severus, Christian writer (approximate date) * Yax Nuun Ayiin I 15th Ajaw of Tikal (approximate date) **426** * Fu Liang, official of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 374) * Xie Hui, general of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 390) * Xu Xianzhi, official of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 364) * Zhang, empress dowager of the Liu Song Dynasty **427** * December 24 – Sisinnius I, archbishop of Constantinople * Guisin, king of Baekje (Korea) * Tao Qian, Chinese poet of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (b. 365) **428** * Gunderic, king of the Vandals and Alans (b. 379) * Qifu Chipan, prince of the Xianbei state Western Qin * Theodore of Mopsuestia, bishop and theologian **429** * January 6 – Honoratus, archbishop of Arles * Heremigarius, military leader of the Suebi

420s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/420s

Year **25 BC** was either a common year starting on Wednesday, Thursday or Friday or a leap year starting on Wednesday or Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar (the sources differ, see leap year error for further information) and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Silanus** (or, less frequently, **year 729 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 25 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman empire * Imperator Caesar Augustus becomes Consul for the ninth time. His partner is Marcus Junius Silanus. * The temple to Neptune on the Circus Flaminius is built. * Estimation: Rome, capital of the Roman Empire becomes the largest city in the world, taking the lead from Chang'an, capital of China. * Galatia becomes a Roman province after the death of its king. The Roman troops stationed there are relocated to Egypt. * The Roman colony of Emerita Augusta is founded (present-day Mérida). #### China * The government gives its tributary states 20,000 rolls of silk cloth and about 20,000 pounds of silk floss. Births ------ * Aulus Cornelius Celsus, author of *De Medicina* (d. c. AD 50) Deaths ------ * Amyntas of Galatia, King of Galatia *

25 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25_BC

Year **421** (**CDXXI**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Agricola and Eustathius** (or, less frequently, **year 1174 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 421 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * February 8 – Constantius III is appointed co-emperor (*Augustus*) with his ineffectual brother-in-law, Honorius, and becomes the real ruler of the Western Roman Empire. * March 25 – Venice is founded at twelve o'clock noon (according to legend) with the dedication of the first church, San Giacomo, at the islet of Rialto (Italy). * June 7 – Emperor Theodosius II marries Aelia Eudocia, a woman of Greek origin. The wedding is celebrated at Constantinople with chariot racing in the Hippodrome. * September 2 – Constantius III dies suddenly of an illness; his wife Galla Placidia becomes, for the second time, a widow. She departs with her children Grata Honoria and Valentinian to the court of Constantinople. #### Europe * Rugila, chieftain of the Huns, attacks the dioceses of Dacia and Thrace (Balkans). Theodosius II allows Pannonian Ostrogoths to settle in Thrace, to defend the Danube frontier. * The Franks conquer new territories in their kingdom and sack the old Roman capital *Augusta Treverorum* (modern Trier). #### Persia * Roman–Sassanid War: Theodosius II starts a war against the Sassanids, sending an expeditionary force under command of Ardaburius, and invades Mesopotamia. * Autumn – Ardaburius devastates Arzanene (Armenia) and forces the Persians to retreat to Nisibis (Syria). King Bahram V allies himself with the Lakhmid Arabs of Hirah. Births ------ Deaths ------ * September 2 – Constantius III, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Jin Gongdi, last emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b. 386) * Li Xun, ruler of the Chinese state Western Liang * Mary of Egypt, patron saint (approximate date) * Ravina I, rabbi (teacher) and Jewish Talmudist

421

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/421

Year **424** (**CDXXIV**) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Castinus and Victor** (or, less frequently, **year 1177 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 424 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * October 23 – Emperor Theodosius II nominates his cousin Valentinian, age 5, the imperial title *nobilissimus Caesar* ("most noble") of the Western Roman Empire. Valentinian is betrothed to Theodosius's own daughter Licinia Eudoxia, who is only 2 years old. * Roman usurper Joannes sends Flavius Aetius, governor of the Palace (*cura palatii*), to the Huns to ask for their assistance. After negotiating, he returns to Italy with a large force. * Winter – A Roman army under the command of Ardaburius leaves Thessalonica (modern Central Macedonia) and marches for Northern Italy, where they make their base at Aquileia. #### China * Shao Di, age 18, is deposed by a group of high officials and succeeded by his younger brother Wen Di as emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty. Shao is exiled to Suzhou, and later killed by an assassin. Births ------ Death ----- * Shao Di, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (b. 406)

424

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/424

Year **253** (**CCLIII**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Volusianus and Claudius** (or, less frequently, **year 1006 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 253 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * The legions who have campaigned against the Goths on the Danube elect Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus as new emperor. He advances on Rome along the Flaminian Way, to meet his opponent emperor Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus. For the most part, generals in the border regions are proclaimed emperor by their armies to halt the invasion of Germanic tribes. * Aemilianus is proclaimed "enemy of the State" by the Roman Senate. Trebonianus Gallus is defeated at Interamna Nahars (Umbria); he flees with Volusianus to the north, but at Foligno they are killed by their own troops. * Aemilianus rules the Roman Empire for three months; he promises to fight in Thrace and goes to war against Persia. The Senate gives him the rank of *Pontifex Maximus*. * Aemilianus is murdered at Spoletium and Publius Valerianus, age 60, is recognised as the new emperor by the Rhine legions. He gives his son Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus the title *Augustus*. Valerianus I dispatches him to the Danube where the Goths have violated the treaty signed with Rome and invaded Moesia. * Valerianus I splits the Roman Empire in two; Gallienus taking control of the West and his father ruling the East, where he faces the Persian threat. * Battle of Barbalissos: King Shapur I, defeats a Roman field army at Barbalissos in Syria 2). * Valerian reforms Legio III *Augusta* to fight the "five peoples", a dangerous coalition of Berber tribes in Africa. ### By topic #### Religion * Pope Cornelius is sent into exile. * June 25 – Pope Lucius I succeeds Pope Cornelius as the 22nd pope. * Lucius is arrested almost immediately following his election and also exiled. Deaths ------ * Aemilianus, Roman emperor * Pope Cornelius * Saint Babylas, Patriarch of Antioch * Fei Yi, Chinese statesman, general and regent of the Shu Han state * Sun He, Chinese prince of the Eastern Wu state (b. 224) * Trebonianus Gallus, Roman emperor * Volusianus, Roman emperor * Zhuge Ke, Chinese general and regent of the Eastern Wu state (b. 203)

253

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/253

Year **258** (**CCLVIII**) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Tuscus and Bassus** (or, less frequently, **year 1011 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 258 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * The Goths ravage Asia Minor and Trapezus. * The amount of silver in the Roman currency of the denarius falls below 10%. The crisis ruins craftsmen, tradesmen, and small farmers, who are forced into bartering; landowners grow richer by buying up cheap land. * Valerian II, eldest son of Gallienus, dies, possibly murdered by Pannonia's governor Ingenuus; Emperor Valerian bestows on another one of Gallienus's sons, Saloninus, the title of *Caesar*. * A second Imperial edict prohibits Christianity in the Roman Empire. This edict divides Christians into four categories: priests, who are to be put to death; senators and equestrians, who are to be stripped of their positions and their property confiscated; nuns, who are to be exiled; and imperial civil servants, who are condemned to forced labour. #### Asia * Sima Zhao quells Zhuge Dan's rebellion, thereby also ending what are known as the Three Rebellions in Shouchun. * Sun Xiu succeeds his brother Sun Liang as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu. ### By topic #### Religion * Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, is martyred (decapitation). * Pope Sixtus II, bishop of Rome, is martyred. Births ------ * Clement of Ancyra, Christian bishop and martyr (d. 312) Deaths ------ * August 6 – Sixtus II, bishop of Rome * September 14 – Cyprian, bishop of Carthage * Anak the Parthian, Parthian nobleman * Chen Zhi (or **Fengzong**), Chinese politician * Novatian, Italian antipope and theologian * Valerian II, son of co-emperor Gallienus * Zhuge Dan (or **Gongxiu**), Chinese general

258

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/258

Year **259** (**CCLIX**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Aemilianus and Bassus** (or, less frequently, **year 1012 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 259 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Valerian leads an army (70,000 men) to relieve Edessa, besieged by the forces of Persian King Shapur I. An outbreak of a plague kills many legionaries, weakening the Roman position in Syria. * Battle of Mediolanum: A Germanic confederation, the Alamanni (300,000 warriors), who crossed the Alps, are defeated by Roman legions under Gallienus, near Mediolanum (modern Milan). * Postumus revolts against Gallienus in Gaul. The western provinces of Britain and Spain join his independent realm—which is called in modern times the Gallic Empire. * Postumus, governor of Gaul, declares himself Emperor, and continues to rule the Gallic Empire until 269, when he is killed by his soldiers. * The Roman fort of Wiesbaden (Germany) is captured by the Alamanni (possibly 260). * The Franks, who invaded the Roman Empire near Cologne in 257, reach Tarraco in Hispania. #### Persia * Mesopotamia: Odaenathus, the ruler of the kingdom of Palmyra, sacks the city of Nehardea, destroying its great yeshiva. ### By topic #### Religion * Pope Dionysius is elected as the pope. Births ------ * Hui of Jin, Chinese emperor of the Jin Dynasty (d. 307) * Tao Kan (or **Shixing**), Chinese general and politician (d. 334) * Yang Zhi, Chinese empress of the Jin Dynasty (d. 292) Deaths ------ * January 10 – Polyeuctus, Roman soldier and saint * January 18 – Sun Chen, Chinese general and regent (b. 232) * Augurius of Tarragona, Christian Hispano-Roman clergyman * Cao Jun (or **Zi'an**), Chinese prince and son of Cao Cao * Fructuosus of Tarragona, Christian bishop, martyr and saint * Wang Chang (or **Wenshu**), Chinese general and politician

259

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/259

Year **341 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Venno and Privernas** (or, less frequently, **year 413 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 341 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Macedonia * Philip II of Macedon completes his annexation of Thrace. This is regarded by Athens as a further threat to the city's safety. #### Greece * Demosthenes delivers his Third Philippic. In it, he demands resolute action against Philip II. Demosthenes now dominates Athenian politics and is able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction led by Aeschines. As a result, Demosthenes becomes controller of the Athenian navy. * A grand alliance is organised by Demosthenes against Philip II, which includes Byzantium and former enemies of Athens, such as Thebes. These developments worry Philip and increase his anger towards Demosthenes. The Athenian Assembly, however, lays aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounces the Peace of Philocrates which has been signed by both sides in 346 BC, an action equivalent to an official declaration of war by Athens against Macedonia. #### Roman Republic * The First Samnite War ends with Rome triumphant and the Samnites willing to make peace. The war is ended with a hasty peace agreement, owing to a revolt by Rome's Latin allies, who resent their dependence on the dominant city. Despite its brevity, the First Samnite War results in the major acquisition by Rome of the rich land of Campania with its capital of Capua.

341 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/341_BC

Year **430** (**CDXXX**) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Theodosius and Valentinianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1183 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 430 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Spring – The Vandals under King Genseric extend their power in North Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, and lay siege to Hippo Regius (where Augustine has recently been bishop). * Flavius Aetius gains appointment as master of both services (*magister utriusque militiae*), after gaining victories in Gaul over Visigoth and Frankish forces. * The Huns led by Octar attack the Burgundians, who occupied territory on the Rhine near the city of Worms (Germany). During the fighting Octar dies, and his army is destroyed. * Flavius Felix, his wife and a deacon are accused of plotting against Aetius. They are arrested in Ravenna and executed. Aetius is granted the title of *patricius* (Roman nobility). #### Asia * Feng Ba abdicates as emperor of the Northern Yan, one of the states vying for control of China. He is succeeded by his brother Feng Hong. ### By topic #### Religion * August 28 – Augustine dies during the siege of Hippo Regius at age 75, leaving behind his monumental work *The City of God* and other works that will have influence on Christianity. * Saint Patrick reaches Ireland on his missionary expedition (approximate date). * Peter the Iberian founds a Georgian monastery near Bethlehem. Births ------ * Asclepigenia, Athenian philosopher and mystic (d. 485) * Julius Nepos, Western Roman Emperor (d. 480) * Marcia Euphemia, Roman Empress (approximate date) * Sidonius Apollinaris, bishop and diplomat (approximate date) * Syagrius, Roman official and son of Aegidius * Victor Vitensis, African bishop (approximate date) * Xiao Wu Di, emperor of the Liu Song Dynasty (d. 464) Deaths ------ * August 28 – Augustine of Hippo, bishop and theologian (b. 354) * Abdas, bishop of Susa * Saint Aurelius, bishop of Carthage (approximate date) * Feng Ba, emperor of the Chinese state Northern Yan * Flavius Felix, Roman consul * Nilus of Sinai, bishop and saint (approximate date) * Octar, Hunnic ruler (approximate date) * Plutarch of Athens, Greek philosopher

430

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/430

Year **265 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Gurges and Vitulus** (or, less frequently, **year 489 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 265 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Although the Egyptian fleet blockades the Saronic Gulf, the Macedonian King Antigonus II defeats the Spartans and kills the king of Sparta, Areus I near Corinth, after which he besieges Athens. * Acrotatus II succeeds his father Areus I as king of Sparta. #### Italy * Hiero II threatens to renew his attack on the Mamertines. They appeal to Carthage and receive the support of a Carthaginian garrison. The Mamertines also appeal to the Romans who are also willing to help. * The Battle of Messana (265-264 BCE) takes place as the first military clash between the Roman Republic and Carthage. * The Etruscan city of Volsinii is brought under Roman control. During a siege, the consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges is killed. #### China * The State of Zhao stations general Li Mu in Yanmen Commandery, where he proceeds to win multiple victories over the Xiongnu. ### By topic #### Arts & sciences * The Archimedes screw for raising water is devised by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, who is studying at Alexandria. Births ------ * Agis IV, king of Sparta (approximate date) * Ziaelas, king of Bithynia (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Alexinus, Greek philosopher of Elis * Areus I, king of Sparta (killed in battle) * Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, Roman consul * Xiang of Qi, Chinese king of Qi (Warring States Period) * Xuan, Chinese queen dowager of Chu (b. 338 BC)

265 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/265_BC

Year **262 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Valerius and Otacilius** (or, less frequently, **year 492 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 262 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * After Athens surrenders following a long siege by Macedonian forces, Antigonus II Gonatas re-garrisons Athens and forbids the city from making war. Otherwise, he leaves Athens alone as the seat of philosophy and learning in Greece. #### Roman Republic * Rome besieges the city of Agrigentum which is held by Carthage under the command of Hannibal Gisco. Rome's siege involves both consular armies – a total of four Roman legions – and takes several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum manages to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by Hanno comes to the rescue and destroys the Roman supply base at Erbessus. Nevertheless, after a few skirmishes, the battle of Agrigentum is fought and won by Rome, and the city falls. Gisco manages to escape to Carthage in the late stages of the battle. * After the loss of Agrigentum, the Carthaginians retire to organise their fleet. In the meantime, the Romans sack Agrigentum and enslave its Greek inhabitants. The Romans are now determined to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily. #### Seleucid Empire * Seleucid king Antiochus I's eldest son Seleucus, who has ruled in the east of the kingdom as viceroy for a number of years, is put to death by his father on the charge of rebellion. * Antiochus I tries to break the growing power of Pergamum by force of arms. Eumenes I, the new ruler of Pergamum, liberates his city from the overlordship of the Seleucids by defeating the army of Antiochus I near Sardis (the capital of Lydia), and thereby establishing an independent city-state. * Antiochus I dies and is succeeded by his second son Antiochus II Theos. #### China * Following the surrender of the Shangdang Commandery, formerly of Han, to the State of Zhao, fighting between Zhao and the State of Qin begins in the area of Changping. Births ------ * Apollonius of Perga (Pergaeus), Greek astronomer and mathematician specialising in geometry and noted for his writings on conic sections (d. c. 190 BC) Deaths ------ * Antiochus I Soter, king of the Seleucid Kingdom from 281 BC (b. c. 323 BC) * Acrotatus II, Agiad king of Sparta * Philemon, Athenian poet and playwright of the New Comedy (b. c. 362 BC) * Zeno of Citium, Hellenistic Stoic philosopher from Citium, Cyprus (b. 333 BC)

262 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/262_BC

Year **346 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Corvus and Visolus** (or, less frequently, **year 408 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 346 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * The Peace of Philocrates is signed between Macedonia and Athens. The document agrees to a return to the status quo, but Philip II of Macedon keeps the right to punish the Phocians for starting the Sacred War. * The Athenian politicians, Demosthenes and Timarchus, prepare to prosecute Aeschines for treason after he has sought to reconcile the Athenians to Macedonia's expansion into Greece. Eubulus loses his influence on Athenian affairs. * Demosthenes, though condemning the terms of the Peace of Philocrates, argues that it has to be honoured. * Following the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip II's army moves through the pass of Thermopylae and subdues Phocis. Athens makes no move to support the Phocians. #### Sicily * Dionysius II is restored to power in Syracuse. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

346 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/346_BC

Year **438** (**CDXXXVIII**) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Theodosius and Glabrio** (or, less frequently, **year 1191 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 438 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Byzantium * Emperor Theodosius II forbids the divulging of secrets of naval carpentry, probably to avoid its spread to the rising Vandal power in North Africa. * February 15 – The *Codex Theodosianus*, a collection of edicts of Roman law, is published. * Aelia Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II, goes on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, bringing back with her holy relics to prove her faith. #### Europe * The last gladiatorial fights are held in the Colosseum in Rome. * King Hermeric of the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia is forced to retire after a seven-year illness. He hands the government over to his son Rechila. #### Persia * Bahram V dies after an 18-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Yazdegerd II, who becomes the fifteenth Sassanid king of the Persian Empire. ### By topic #### Religion * Relics of John Chrysostom are transported to Constantinople. Births ------ * Basina, queen of Thuringia (approximate date) * Epiphanius, bishop of Pavia (d. 496) Deaths ------ * Bahram V, king of the Persian Empire * Feng Hong, last emperor of Northern Yan

438

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/438

Year **268 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Sophus and Russus** (or, less frequently, **year 486 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 268 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * The Roman denarius coin is minted for the first time. * The Romans found a colony at Malventum which they, for superstitious reasons, call Beneventum (since *male* means *bad* and *bene* means *good* in Latin). * The Romans found a colony at Ariminum. #### Greece * Chremonides, an Athenian statesman and general, issues the Decree of Chremonides, creating an alliance between Sparta, Athens, and Ptolemy II of Egypt. The origins of this alliance lay in the continuing desire of many Greek states, notably Athens and Sparta, for a restoration of their former independence, along with the desire of Ptolemy II to create troubles for his rival Antigonus II, King of Macedonia. Ptolemy II's ambitions in the Aegean Sea are threatened by Antigonus Gonatas' fleet, so he carefully builds up a coalition of the rest of the Greeks against Macedonians. He especially cultivates Athens by supplying the city with grain. #### India * Ashoka becomes emperor of the Maurya Empire. Births ------ * Fu Sheng (**Master Fu**), Chinese Confusian scholar (d. 178 BC) * Li Yiji, Chinese politician and adviser (d. 204 BC) Deaths ------ *

268 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/268_BC

The **260s** decade ran from January 1, 260, to December 31, 269. Events ------ ### 260 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Battle of Edessa: With a large army, said to number 70,000 men, Valerian attempts to drive the Persians back from Edessa. The Roman army is surrounded and most of its troops are killed or captured. Valerian is taken prisoner for the remainder of his life. * King Shapur I sends Valerian to Bishapur and uses the captured Roman army for engineering plans. They construct the *Band-e Kaisar* ("Bridge of Valerian"). * Gallienus becomes the sole emperor of Rome; during his reign the Pannonian governor Ingenuus revolts on the Danube. * Gallienus evacuates the fortifications (limes) in the *Agri Decumates* (Germania Superior), covering the Black Forest area in the face of invading Alamanni. * Gallienus establishes himself at Mediolanum (modern Milan); he reorganizes the army, supported by elite cavalry, and dispatches troops to the Rhine frontier. * Postumus, Roman usurper, forms the Gallic Empire and protects the Rhine against an invasion of Germanic tribes. * Saloninus, son of Gallienus, is proclaimed *Augustus* by his troops. Postumus besieges Cologne, where Silvanus is praetorian prefect and Roman ruler of Gaul. * Postumus executes Saloninus and his adviser Silvanus after breaching the walls of Cologne. He is recognized as emperor and establishes his capital at Trier. * Postumus wins over all the Roman provinces west of the Alps, including Gaul, Britain and Hispania. * The Roman fort of Wiesbaden (Germany) is captured by the Alamanni. * The Franks take control over the Scheldt estuary (approximate date). ###### Persia * Persian king Shapur I destroys Caesarea Mazaca in Asia Minor. ###### China * Emperor Cao Mao of Former Wei state attempts to lead a coup against the powerful regent Sima Zhao, but he himself is killed before it comes to a confrontation. * June 2 – Cao Mao is killed in a *coup d'état* against Sima Zhao. The 14-year-old Cao Huan becomes ruler of Former Wei, but the Sima clan controls the state. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * Earliest known date of chess (approximate date). ###### Religion * Pope Dionysius convenes a synod at Rome to demand an explanation from bishop Dionysius of Alexandria, who has been charged with separating the members of the Trinity as three distinct deities. * Paul of Samosata becomes Patriarch of Antioch. ### 261 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Gallienus crushes the Alemanni at Milan (approximate date). * Gallienus repeals the edict of 258, which led to the persecution of the Christians. * Gallienus usurpers: The rebellion of Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor, and Quietus against Gallienus comes to an end. They march from Asia to Europe but they are defeated in Thrace by Gallienus' general Aureolus, and both Macrianus Major and Macrianus Minor are killed. Quietus flees to Emesa, where he is killed by Odaenathus of Palmyra. * Roman–Persian Wars: Balista, Roman usurper, collects ships from Cilician ports and defeats a Persian raiding force near Pompeiopolis. ###### Asia * Michu of Silla ascends to the Korean throne of Silla, becoming the first ruler of the Long Kim line. ### 262 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * The Goths invade Asia Minor and destroy the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. * An earthquake strikes Ephesus and Pergamon and another strikes Cyrene. * The Heruls accompany the Goths, ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. ### 263 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * King Odenathus of Palmyra declares himself ruler of the area west of the River Euphrates and is declared *Dux Orientalis* by the Roman emperor Gallienus. ###### Asia * Conquest of Shu by Wei: The Chinese state of Cao Wei conquers Shu Han, one of its two rival states. * Sima Zhao, regent of the Cao Wei state, receives and accepts the nine bestowments, state chancellorship, and the title *Duke of Jin* from Cao Huan. #### By topic ###### Art and Science * Chinese mathematician Liu Hui writes a commentary on *The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art*, describing what will later be called Gaussian elimination, computing pi, etc. ### 264 #### By place ###### Asia * March 1–3 – Zhong Hui's Rebellion in China is quelled. * Sima Zhao, regent of the Chinese state of Cao Wei, styles himself the "King of Jin", the penultimate step before usurpation. * Sun Hao succeeds Sun Xiu as emperor of the Chinese state of Eastern Wu. ### 265 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Emperor Gallienus tries twice to crush the usurper Postumus, but on the first occasion Aureolus, commander of the elite cavalry, carelessly lets him escape. The second time, Gallienus sustains an arrow wound and has to break off his siege of a Gallic town where Postumus has holed up. He makes no other serious attempt to overcome his rival, instead devoting his attention to the political and military problems in the Danube and eastern parts of the Roman Empire. * Postumus makes no move to march on Rome and claim his territory south of Gaul. * Gallienus gives the order to fortify Milan and Verona. * Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans. * A general of Gallienus' army, Victorinus, defects to Postumus. ###### China * Sima Zhao, who had been the regent and de facto primary authority of the state of Cao Wei for little over 10 years by this point, passes away, leaving his authority to his eldest son, Sima Yan, who will go on to disestablish the state of Cao Wei in 266, founding the Jin dynasty. ### 266 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * King Odaenathus of Palmyra invades Persia to conquer the capital, Ctesiphon, and twice comes as far as the walls of the Persian capital, but fails to take it. After his victories in the East, he pronounces himself with the title "king of kings". * A powerful tropical volcanic eruption around this year brings a below-average flood of the Nile next year. ###### Ireland * The rule of High King Cormac mac Airt ends (approximate date). ###### Asia * February 4 – Sima Yan, regent of the Chinese state of Cao Wei, forces the last Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan to abdicate in his favour. The Cao Wei state's existence comes to an end. Sima Yan establishes the Jin Dynasty, and becomes its first emperor on 8 February, and is historically known as "Wu of Jin". He establishes his capital at Luoyang, and gives his male relatives independent military commands throughout his empire. ### 267 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * First Gothic invasion: The Goths, originally from Scandinavia, with the Sarmatians (from modern Iran), invade the Balkans and Greece. They ravage Moesia and Thrace. * The Heruli invade the Black Sea coast; they unsuccessfully attack Byzantium and Cyzicus. The Roman fleet defeats the Herulian fleet (500 ships) but allows them to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they raid the islands of Lemnos and Skyros. * The Goths sack several cities of southern Greece including Athens, Corinth, Argos and Sparta. After the Sack of Athens, an Athenian militia force (2,000 men), under the historian Dexippus, pushes the invaders to the north where they are intercepted by the Roman army under emperor Gallienus. He wins an important victory near the Nestos River, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace. * Aureolus, charged with defending Italy, defeats Victorinus (co-emperor of Gaul), is proclaimed emperor by his troops, and begins his march on Rome. ###### Near East * King Septimius Odaenathus of Palmyra makes plans for a campaign in Cappadocia against the Goths. He is assassinated, along with his eldest son, most probably by his nephew due to a previous altercation between him and Odaenathus. His wife Zenobia succeeds him, and rules Vaballathus (the Palmyrene Empire) with her young son. ### 268 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * September – Battle of Naissus: Emperor Gallienus, aided by Aurelian, defeats a Gothic coalition (50,000 warriors) near Naissus (Niš, modern Serbia). * Gallienus is killed by his own senior officers at Mediolanum (Milan) while besieging his rival Aureolus. Aureolus is murdered in turn by the Praetorian guard. * Marcus Aurelius Claudius is charged, by the Senate, with having murdered Gallienus (it will never be proven). He becomes the new emperor of Rome and will reign as Claudius II. * Claudius II asks the Senate to spare the lives of Gallienus's family and political supporters. Emperor Gallienus is deified and buried in a family tomb on the Appian Way. * The Alamanni invade Italy north of the Po River. * The Visigoths first appear as a distinct people. * November – Battle of Lake Benacus: A Roman army (35,000 men) under emperor Claudius II defeats the Germanic tribes of the Alamanni along the banks of Lake Garda. ###### Europe * Victorinus is declared emperor of the Gallic Empire by the legions at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), following the murders of his predecessors. He is recognized by the provinces of Gaul and Britain, but Hispania might have reunited with the Roman Empire. #### By Topic ###### Religion * December 26 – Pope Dionysius dies at Rome after a 9-year reign and is succeeded by Felix I. ### 269 #### By place ###### Roman Empire * Second Gothic invasion: The Goths and other German tribes attack Bosphorean towns on the coast of the Black Sea. Some 2,000 ships and 320,000 men from the Danube enter Roman territory. Emperor Claudius II defeats the invaders and receives the title Gothicus for his triumph. Many of the prisoners will serve in the Roman legions and settle in vacant lands in the Danubian provinces. * Claudius II travels to Sirmium and prepares a war against the Vandals, who raid Pannonia. * The Heruli capture Athens and raid the Aegean Islands as far as Crete and Rhodes. * Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus is killed by his own troops, after not allowing them to sack the city of Mogontiacum. ###### Near East * Queen Zenobia conquers Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, parts of Mesopotamia and Anatolia and Egypt, giving her control of Rome's grain supply. The library at Alexandria is partly burned during a raid by Zabdas, general of Zenobia. #### By topic ###### Religion * January 5 – Pope Felix I succeeds Dionysius as the 26th pope of Rome. * Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch (though he is not removed until 272). Significant people ------------------ Births ------ **260** * Eusebius of Caesarea, Greek bishop and historian (approximate date)**261** * Lu Ji (or **Shiheng**), Chinese general and politician (d. 303) **265** * Eusebius of Caesarea, Greek historian (approximate date) **266** * Galeria Valeria, Roman empress and wife of Galerius (d. 315) * Wang Dun (or **Chuzhong**), Chinese general and warlord (d. 324) * Zu Ti (or **Shizhi**), Chinese general and adviser (d. 321) **267** * Pei Wei (or **Yimin**), Chinese philosopher and politician (d. 300) **269** * Chi Jian (or **Daohui**), Chinese general (d. 339) * Murong Hui, Chinese general and politician (d. 333) Deaths ------ **260** * June 2 – Cao Mao, Chinese emperor of the Cao Wei state (b. 241) * July 2 – Cao Jie, Chinese empress of the Han Dynasty (b. 197) * Chen Tai (or **Xuanbo**), Chinese general and politician * Regalianus (or **Regalian**), Roman general and usurper * Saloninus, Roman emperor and son of Gallienus (b.242) * Shapur Meshanshah, Sasanian prince and governor * Sun Liang, Chinese emperor of the Eastern Wu state (b. 243) * Valerianus I, Roman consul and emperor (approximate date) * Wang Guan (or **Weitai**), Chinese official and politician * Wang Jing (or **Yanwei**), Chinese official and politician **261** * June 9 – Wang Ji (or **Boyu**), Chinese general (b. 190) * Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, Roman usurper * Macrianus Major, Roman general and usurper * Macrianus Minor, Roman consul and usurper * Quietus, Roman consul and usurper * Valens Thessalonicus, Roman usurper * Yang Xi (or **Wenran**), Chinese politician **262** * Ji Kang (or **Shuye**), Chinese Daoist philosopher and poet (b. 223) * Marinus of Caesarea, Roman soldier and Christian martyr * Valerian, Roman consul and emperor (approximate date) **263** * Gao Rou (or **Wenhui**), Chinese politician (b. 174) * Lady Li (or **Lishi**), Chinese noblewoman * Liu Chen, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state * Ruan Ji, Chinese poet and musician (b. 210) * Zhuge Zhan, Chinese general and politician (b. 227) **264** * March 3 + Jiang Wei (or **Boyue**), Chinese general and regent (b. 202) + Zhang Yi (or **Bogong**), Chinese general and politician + Zhong Hui (or **Shiji**), Chinese general and politician (b. 225) * March 22 – Dionysius the Great, patriarch of Alexandria * September 3 – Sun Xiu (**Jing of Wu**), Chinese emperor (b. 235) * Deng Ai (or **Shizai**), Chinese general and politician (b. 197) * Guo (or **Mingyuan**), Chinese empress of the Cao Wei state * Liao Hua (or **Yuanjian**), Chinese general and politician * Liu Xuan, Chinese prince of the Shu Han state (b. 224) * Puyang Xing (or **Ziyuan**), Chinese official and chancellor * Zong Yu (or **Deyan**), Chinese general and politician **265** * September 6 – Sima Zhao, Chinese general and politician (b. 211) * Ma Jun, Chinese engineer and inventor of the south-pointing chariot * Zhu (or **Jing**), Chinese empress of the Eastern Wu state **266** * Wang Chen (or **Chudao**), Chinese general and politician * Wang Fan, Chinese astronomer and mathematician (b. 228) **267** * Septimius Herodianus, co-king of Palmyra (assassinated) * Septimius Odaenathus, king of Palmyra (assassinated) **268** * December 26 – Dionysius, bishop of Rome * Aureolus, Roman usurper * Gallienus, Roman emperor (b. 218) * Laelianus, Roman usurper * Marcus Aurelius Marius, Roman emperor (Gaul) * Postumus, Roman emperor of the Gallic Empire **269** * Jingū, Japanese empress and regent (b. 169) * Justin the Confessor, Christian priest and martyr * Liu Yin (or **Xiuran**), Chinese general and administrator * Lu Kai (or **Jingfeng**), Chinese general and politician (b. 198) * Marcus Aurelius Marius, Gallic general and emperor * Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus, Gallic emperor * Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus, Gallic emperor and usurper * Wang Xiang (or **Xiuzheng**), Chinese politician (b. 185) * Xin Xianying, Chinese noblewoman and advisor (b. 191)

260s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/260s

The **440s** decade ran from January 1, 440, to December 31, 449. Events ------ ### 440 #### By place ###### Europe * Flavius Aetius, Roman general (*magister militum*), returns as *triumphator* back to Rome, after several years' fighting the Burgundians and Visigoths in Gaul. He is honoured by a statue erected by the Senate, and by order of Emperor Valentinian III. * The Huns under Attila reappear in force, along the frontier of the Western Roman Empire. They attack merchants on the north bank of the Danube and cities in Illyricum, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, city of Moesia. ###### Africa * A Vandal fleet and their allies (Alans, Goths and Moors) set out from Carthage for Sicily, the principal supplier of oil and grain to Italy after the loss of North Africa. They loot all the coastal towns and besiege Palermo. Heavily laden ships return to the court of king Genseric. ###### Asia * Dynasties of the North and South: The Chinese Empire is unified by the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Northern state will have three competing dynasties—Northern Wei, Northern Qi and Northern Liang, while the Southern state is dominated by the Song (or Liu Song) Dynasty. * A center of Buddhist studies is established at Nalanda in Bihar on the plains of the Ganges River (India). ###### Persia * The Hepthalites (White Huns) move south from the Altai Mountain region into Transoxiana, Bactria, Khorasan and eastern Persia. #### By topic ###### Art * The Parting of Lot and Abraham, mosaic in the nave arcade, Church of Santa Maria Maggiore (Rome), is made. ###### Ancient Games * Chaturanga, Indian war game and an ancestor of chess through the Persian game of Shatranj (or *Chatrang*), evolves in the Indus Valley on the Indian subcontinent (approximate date). ###### Religion * August 18 – Pope Sixtus III dies after an 8-year reign in which he has resisted heresy and sponsored major construction programs in Rome. He is succeeded by Leo I as the 45th pope. * September 29 – Leo I begins to formulate Orthodoxy and condemns Eutychianism, an extreme form of monophysitism which holds that the human nature of Christ is absorbed by His divine nature. * Winter – Leo I sends a letter to Valentinian III stating, "by the Holy Spirit's inspiration the emperor needs no human instruction and is incapable of doctrinal error". ### 441 #### By place ###### Byzantium * Chrysaphius, chief minister, persuades Emperor Theodosius II at Constantinople to dismiss his sister Pulcheria, for her policy of exiling the Jews, and destroying their synagogues. * Theodosius II sends the Eastern imperial fleet, under the command of the Romano-Goth Areobindus, into Sicilian waters, taking the Vandals by surprise. * Pulcheria leaves for the seaport Hebdomon (Turkey), and becomes a nun to support Nestorianism in the Holy Land (Palestine). * The Huns, led by Attila, attack Constanţa (modern Romania), one of the few remaining Roman forts on the northern bank of the Danube, and designated as a secure trading post. On a crowded market day, the Huns take the town by surprise and slaughter the garrison. ###### Europe * German Saxons establish themselves at the mouth of the Thames River. After a period of peace, Vortimer (son of king Vortigern), defeats the Saxons in four battles in Kent (according to the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*). * King Hermeric dies after a two-year illness; he is succeeded by his son Rechila, who becomes sole ruler over the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia. * Rechila invades Baetica and conquers the capital Seville. The Romans are driven from the Iberian Peninsula with the exception of the Levante. * November 8 – The first Council of Orange is convened under the guidance of Hilary of Arles in Orange (France). ###### Persia * King Yazdegerd II of Persia signs a peace treaty after a short war with the Eastern Roman Empire. Theodosius II sends his commander, Anatolius, to conclude his terms and promise not to build any new fortifications along the border territories. #### By topic ###### Religion * Domnus II succeeds his uncle John as Patriarch of Antioch. ### 442 #### By place ###### Europe * Valentinian III forms a marriage proposal for his eldest daughter Eudocia and Genseric's son Huneric. He is already married to a Visigoth princess, and Genseric decides to free him of his obligations by accusing her of trying to poison him. He leaves her mutilated - her ears and nose are cut off - and sends her back to her father Theodoric I, in Toulouse (Gaul). * The Huns, on a military campaign along the Danube and the Great Morava, destroy the city of Naissus (modern Serbia). They have mastered siege technology and are able to capture fortified cities. The Roman Senate agrees to pay Attila a tribute of 700 pounds of gold per year. * Eógan mac Néill, founder of the kingdom of Ailech (County Tyrone), is baptized by Saint Patrick. He becomes the first Catholic High King of Ireland. ###### Africa * Emperor Valentinian III signs a peace treaty with King Genseric, and recognises the Vandal Kingdom. He grants him sovereignty over most of Africa. Genseric gives back Sicily and Mauretania (Algeria and Morocco). This marks the end of the Vandal migrations; they settle in North Africa, with Carthage as their capital. #### By topic ###### Religion * The Monastery of St. Shenouda the Archimandrite (White Monastery) near Sohag (Egypt) is built. ### 443 #### By place ###### Europe * The Burgundians sign a peace treaty with Rome, agreeing to serve as *foederati* in the Roman army. They begin to move from the Upper Rhine and Flavius Aetius, commander-in-chief (*magister militum*), gives them land in the Geneva area (Maxima Sequanorum). * Period of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by rival kingdoms and Pictish invasions; the situation aggravates tensions between Pelagian and Roman factions. Pro-Roman citizens migrate towards Gaul. #### By topic ###### Religion * Gunabhadra, Indian Buddhist monk, is an invited honored guest by emperor Wen of Liu Song (Liu Song Dynasty). He translates the Lankavatara Sutra from Sanskrit into the Chinese language. ### 444 #### By place ###### Europe * Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), settles the Alans around Valence and Orléans, to contain unrest in Brittany. * Eudocia, eldest daughter of Emperor Valentinian III, is betrothed to Huneric, son of Vandal King Genseric (hostage in Italy). * Attila the Hun establishes his residence along the Tisza River (modern Hungary), and plans the coming campaign in the Balkans. * A "pestilence" that is probably cyprian plague strikes the British Isles, and makes the country vulnerable to internal revolts. * The Irish city of Armagh is founded by Saint Patrick the Great. #### By topic ###### Religion * Pope Leo I extinguishes the Gallican vicariate. * Dioscorus I becomes Patriarch of Alexandria. ### 445 #### By place ###### Europe * Emperor Valentinian III issues an imperial edict against Manichaeism. Heavy penalties are decreed against those who do not denounce the religion, and retain Manichaean books. * Petronius Maximus, prominent aristocrat, is given the title of Patrician. He becomes the most honored of all non-imperial Romans, and political rival of Flavius Aetius. * Bleda, co-ruler of the Huns, dies in a hunting accident. He is possibly murdered at the instigation of his younger brother Attila, with whom he has ruled since 434. Now about 39, Attila takes the throne for himself, and becomes king of the Hunnic Empire. #### By topic ###### Religion * Domnus II, Patriarch of Antioch, summons a synod of Syrian bishops to confirm the deposition of Athanasius of Perrha. * Ireland: The Diocese of Armagh is created. ### 446 #### By place ###### Europe * Bishop Germanus of Auxerre visits Ravenna, seeking to soften imperial hostility towards the Bagaudae. On his arrival at the capital, empress-mother Galla Placidia sends him a silver dish with a choice selection of prepared dainties—all vegetarian, out of respect for the bishop's strict diet. Germanus petitions the Senate for leniency for the citizens of Armorica (Brittany). * The Britons and Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, under King Vortigern, appeal to Flavius Aetius (*magister militum* of Gaul) for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and Irish. Aetius has enough problems with Attila the Hun and is unable to send any help (according to *Groans of the Britons*). * The Cor Tewdws (College of Theodosius), Llantwit Major (Wales), is supposedly burned down by Irish pirates. ###### China * Three Disasters of Wu: The Northern Wei Dynasty begins persecuting Buddhists, having heretofore encouraged them. The drain of manpower and tax money to temples and monasteries has threatened the secular government, and the reaction is fierce: monks and nuns are murdered, temples and icons destroyed. All men under age 50 are prohibited from joining any monastic order in a program that will continue until 450, helping the Confucianist philosophy of the Han Dynasty to gain dominance over Buddhism. #### By topic ###### Religion * A local synod is held by Turibius of Astorga. * Flavian becomes patriarch of Constantinople. ### 447 #### By place ###### Byzantium * November 6 – The Walls of Constantinople are severely damaged by an earthquake, which destroys large parts of the structure, including 57 towers. The population is threatened by a plague. Emperor Theodosius II orders Constantine, praetorian prefect of the East, to supervise the repairs. He employs the city's *demoi* ("Circus factions") in the work, and rebuilds the walls within 60 days. * The Huns, led by Attila, cross the Danube, and invade the Balkans as far as Thermopylae (Greece). During the invasion, Serdica (modern Sofia) is destroyed. For disobeying the terms of the treaty made in 442, Attila triples his demand for tribute to 2,100 pounds (ca. 700 kg) of gold per year; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner to 12 *solidi*. * Theodosius II sends an embassy to Attila; Priscus of Panium, envoy for the Eastern Roman Empire. Priscus records one of the few eyewitness accounts of the Hun kingdom. * Battle of the Utus: Attila defeats the Roman army near the river Utus (Vit, Bulgaria). The Huns are forced to abandon the siege of Constantinople. They march north and plunder the defenseless Balkan provinces (including Thrace, Scythia, Moesia, Dacia and Illyricum). * Winter – Theodosius II chooses a policy to protect Constantinople against the Huns. He removes Aspar and Areobindus (*magister militum*) from their military commands. ###### Europe * Vortigern, king of the Britons, receives the Saxon leaders Hengist and Horsa "as friends" and grants the brothers the Isle of Thanet, most easterly point of Kent (England). #### By topic ###### Arts and Sciences * The first entry in the *Annales Cambriæ* refers to this year. ###### Religion * Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, makes his second visit to Britain. He spiritually combats the revived Pelagian threat and expels the Irish from Powys (Wales). * The Synod of Toledo (Spain) tries to add the filioque clause to the Nicene Creed. The Eastern Orthodox Church refuses to go along with this idea. ### 448 #### By place ###### Byzantium * Emperor Theodosius II sends an embassy to Attila the Hun; Anatolius, an Eastern Roman general (*magister militum*) responsible for the security of the Eastern frontier, achieves a peace treaty with the Huns, in exchange for an annual tribute of 950 kilograms (2,100 lb) of gold per year. * Attila demands in the treaty the evacuation of the territory running from *Singidunum* (Belgrade, in Serbia) 500 kilometres (300 mi) east along the Danube to *Novae* (Svishtov, in Bulgaria). This depopulated buffer zone deprives the Romans of their natural defensive advantages. * Theodosius II orders all non-Christian books burned. ###### Europe * Flavius Aetius suppresses the Bagaudae in Armorica (Gaul), and defeats the Salian Franks under King Chlodio near Arras (Belgica Secunda); the invaders are stopped around a river-crossing near *Vicus Helena*. * Rechiar succeeds his father Rechila as king of the Suebi in Galicia (Northern Spain). He marries a daughter of the Visigoth king Theodoric I and converts to Catholicism. ###### China * Kou Qianzhi, Chinese Daoist reformer, dies after having converted emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei and having established Daoism as the country's dominant religion. His death presages a revival of Buddhism as China's dominant faith. #### By topic ###### Religion * Eutyches is accused of heresy at a synod held in Constantinople. ### 449 #### By place ###### Europe * Emperor Valentinian III sends an embassy to Attila the Hun. The purpose of the meeting is a long-running dispute over spoils of war during the Danube offensive (441–442). Attila claims his lost property, but Valentinian and Flavius Aetius (*magister militum*) refuse this request. * Flavius Orestes, Roman aristocrat, is sent to Attila's court and becomes a high-ranking secretary (*notarius*). He is the father of the future emperor Romulus Augustulus. * Traditional date – Vortigern, supposed king of the Britons, invites Hengist and Horsa, by tradition chieftains of the Jutes, to form a military alliance against the Picts and Scoti, so contributing to the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain (according to Bede). #### By topic ###### Religion * August 3 – The Second Council of Ephesus opens, chaired by Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, and Domnus II, patriarch of Antioch, are deposed on August 8. * October – A Roman synod repudiates all the decisions of the Second Council of Ephesus. * Anatolius becomes patriarch of Constantinople. * Maximus II becomes patriarch of Antioch. Significant people ------------------ * Attila the Hun, King of the Huns Births ------ **440** * Bodhidharma, semi-legendary Buddhist monk (approximate date) * Euric, Visigothic king and son of Theodoric I (d. 484) * Gaudentius, son of Flavius Aetius (approximate date) * Qi Wudi, Chinese emperor of the Southern Qi Dynasty (d. 493) * Tonantius Ferreolus, Gallo-Roman senator and prefect of Gaul * Vakhtang I, king of Iberia (modern Georgia) (approximate date) * Wen Cheng Di, emperor of the Northern Wei Dynasty (d. 465) **441** * Shen Yue, Chinese historian and statesman (d. 513) **442** * Feng, Chinese empress and regent of the Northern Wei Dynasty (d. 490) * Isidore of Miletus, Byzantine architect and mathematician (d. 537) * Placidia, Roman empress and daughter of Valentinian III (approximate date) * Angelus Daemonicus, Roman general (d. ?) **444** * Xiao Ni, prince of Southern Qi (d. 492) **448** * Cyriacus of Athens, Greek anchorite and saint (d. 557) **449** * February 25 – Liu Ziye, emperor of the Liu Song dynasty (d. 466) * Eugendus, abbot of Condat Abbey (approximate date) * Kavadh I, king of the Persian Empire (d. 531) Deaths ------ **440** * February 17 – Mesrob, Armenian monk and linguist (b. 362) * August 18 – Pope Sixtus III (b. 390) * Amalgaid mac Fiachrae, king of Connacht (Ireland) * Yuan Qigui, empress and wife of Wen of Liu Song (b. 405) **441** * Hermeric, king of the Suebi * John, Patriarch of Antioch **442** * Veh Mihr Shapur, Sasanian military officer and Marzban of Armenia **443** * Zong Bing, Chinese artist and musician **444** * Bricius, bishop of Tours * Cyril of Alexandria, patriarch and theologian * Juqu Wuhui, prince of Northern Liang **445** * Arsenius the Great, Desert Father * King Bleda of the Huns (approximate date) * Fan Ye, Chinese historian (b. 398) * Nath Í mac Fiachrach, High King of Ireland **446** * February 19 – Leontius of Trier, Bishop of Trier * Mac Cairthinn mac Coelboth, king of Leinster (Ireland) * Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (approximate date) **447** * Areobindus, Roman general (*magister militum*) * Juqu Mujian, prince of the Chinese state Northern Liang * Secundinus (or Seachnaill), patron saint **448** * Kou Qianzhi, Chinese high official and Daoist (b. 365) * Rechila, king of the Suebi (approximate date) * Saint Germanus, bishop of Auxerre (approximate date) **449** * August 11 – Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople * Eucherius, bishop of Lyon (approximate date) * Hilary, bishop of Arles (b. 403)

440s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/440s

Year **405** (**CDV**) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Stilicho and Anthemius** (or, less frequently, **year 1158 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 405 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Honorius closes the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), in an austerity move that abolishes amusements. * Stilicho, Roman general (*magister militum*), orders the Sibylline Books to be burned, according to the Roman poet Rutilius Claudius Namatianus. * Stilicho crushes a coalition of Asding Vandals, Ostrogoths and Quadi with an army raised from forces of the Rhine frontier, leaving this sector dangerously weakened. * King Radagaisus leads an invasion with a force of 20,000 men and crosses the Alps. He spends the winter in the Po Valley and is observed by Stilicho, who lacks sufficient strength to prepare an offensive against the invading German tribes. The exact numbers of the migration are unknown, probably nearly 100,000, including Alans, Burgundians, Goths, Vandals, and other smaller tribes. * Flavius Aetius is sent as a child hostage at the court of Alaric I, king of the Visigoths. #### Asia * The Khitan are first mentioned in Chinese chronicles. They wander along the boundaries of Kara-muren, and form part of the Donghu (Tong-hou) confederation. * Jeonji becomes king of the Korean kingdom of Baekje. ### By topic #### Arts and Sciences * The Armenian alphabet is devised by Mesrop Mashtots. * The Japanese court officially adopts the Chinese writing system (approximate date). * Theon of Alexandria, Greek mathematician, dies at age 70 (approximate), having been helped in his work by his daughter Hypatia. #### Religion * Jerome's Vulgate translation of the Bible into Latin is completed by his translations of the Tanakh from the Hebrew language. * In the Roman province of Africa, Augustine of Hippo opposes Donatism as a heresy. Births ------ * Ricimer, *de facto* ruler of the Western Roman Empire (approximate date) * Salvian, Christian writer (approximate date) * Yuan Qigui, empress and wife of Wen of Liu Song (d. 440) Deaths ------ * June 26 – Saint Vigilius, bishop of Trent (b. 353) * November 11 – Arsacius of Tarsus, archbishop of Constantinople * Moses the Black, Christian monk and priest (b. 330) * Murong De, emperor of the Xianbei state Southern Yan (b. 336) * Richu, emperor of Japan (approximate date) * Theon of Alexandria, last director of the Library of Alexandria (approximate date)

405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/405

Year **275 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Dentatus and Caudinus** (or, less frequently, **year 479 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 275 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * The Museum of Alexandria is founded by the Egyptian King Ptolemy II. #### Roman Republic * When Pyrrhus returns from Sicily, he finds himself vastly outnumbered by a superior Roman army under the command of consul Manius Curius Dentatus. After the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum, Roman commander and statesman, Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, negotiates a peace with Pyrrhus, after which Pyrrhus decides to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus, which results in the loss of all his Italian holdings. #### Sicily * Following the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily, the Syracusan army and the city's citizens appoint Hiero II as the commander of their slaves. He strengthens his position by marrying the daughter of Leptines, the city's leading citizen. #### Greece * Antiochus's alliance with Antigonus II, now fully in possession of Macedonia, is cemented by Antigonus's marriage to Phila, Antiochus's half sister. #### China * General Bai Qi of the State of Qin brings order to the rebellious provinces of Wu and Qianzhong, which had been formed from the territories conquered from the State of Chu between 280 and 278 BC. * General Lian Po of the State of Zhou invades the State of Wei and captures the cities of Fangling and Anyang. Births ------ * Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general, statesman and father of Hannibal (approximate date) * Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, Roman dictator, politician and leader (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Shen Dao, Chinese philosopher from Zhao who also served at the Jixia academy in Qi. He is known for his blend of Legalism and Taoism (approximate date)

275 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/275_BC

Year **448 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Coritinesanus and Caeliomontanus** (or, less frequently, **year 306 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 448 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Pericles leads the Athenian army against Delphi to restore the sanctuary of the oracle of Delphi to Phocis. * The Athenians begin constructing the middle component of the Long Walls from their main city to its port of Piraeus. #### Rome * Following the co-optation of two patricians to the office of Tribune of the Plebs, the tribune Lucius Trebonius Asper introduces the *Lex Trebonia*, a law forbidding tribunes from co-opting their colleagues in the future. Births ------ * Bardyllis, king of Dardania (d. 358 BC) Deaths ------ *

448 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/448_BC

Year **272** (**CCLXXII**) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Postumius and Veldumnianus** (or, less frequently, **year 1025 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 272 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Aurelian launches a two-pronged invasion of the Palmyrene Empire, sending his commander Marcus Aurelius Probus to restore Roman rule in Egypt while he marches into Asia Minor. * As part of a strategy of clemency, Aurelian spares Tyana after capturing the city. This strategy encourages units under Zenobia to defect to Aurelian. * Battle of Immae: Aurelian defeats the Palmyrene heavy cavalry (*clibanarii*) near Antioch. Queen Zenobia flees under cover of darkness to Emesa (Syria). * Aurelian supports the bishops of Italy in deposing the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, who had been a supporter of Zenobia. This is the first recorded instance of an imperial intervention in an ecclesiastical dispute. * Battle of Emesa: Aurelian decisively defeats the Palmyrene army. * Aurelian besieges Palmyra. Zenobia attempts to escape to Persia but is captured on the Euphrates. Palmyra surrenders soon after. * Following a series of trials held in Emesa, Cassius Longinus and other advisors of Zenobia are executed for conspiring against Aurelian. ### By topic #### Religion * Dometius succeeds Titus as Patriarch of Constantinople. * Saint Denis, first Bishop of Paris, and two of his disciples are beheaded on the road to the Temple of Mercury that stands atop a hill outside of the city. The hill will later be called Montmartre (Mountain of Martyrs) in Lutetia (modern Paris). * Paul of Samosata is deposed as Patriarch of Antioch. Births ------ * February 27 – Constantine the Great, Roman emperor (d. 337) * Wei Shuo (or **Mouyi**), Chinese calligrapher (d. 349) Deaths ------ * Liu Qubei, Chinese prince of the Southern Xiongnu * Shapur I (**the Great**), king of the Sassanid Empire * Sabbas Stratelates, Roman general and martyr * Sima Fu, Chinese prince and statesman (b. 180) * Wan Yu, Chinese chancellor and politician

272

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/272

Year **272 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Cursor and Maximus** (or, less frequently, **year 482 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 272 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Seleucid Empire * The Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter is defeated by Egypt's Ptolemy II during the First Syrian War. Ptolemy II annexes Miletus, Phoenicia and western Cilicia from Antiochus. As a result, Ptolemy II extends Egyptian rule as far as Caria and into most of Cilicia. #### Egypt * Egypt's victories solidify the kingdom's position as the undisputed naval power of the eastern Mediterranean; the Ptolemaic sphere of power now extends over the Cyclades to Samothrace, and the harbours and coastal towns of Cilicia Trachea, Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria. #### Roman Republic * Pyrrhus' departure from southern Italy three years earlier leads to the Samnites finally being conquered by the Romans. With the surrender of Tarentum, the cities of Magna Graecia in southern Italy come under Roman influence and become Roman allies. Rome now effectively dominates all of the Italian peninsula. #### Greece * Cleonymus, a Spartan of royal blood who has been outcast by his fellow Spartans, asks the King of Macedonia and Epirus, Pyrrhus, to attack Sparta and place him in power. Pyrrhus agrees to the plan, but intends to win control of the Peloponnese for himself. As a large part of the Spartan army led by king Areus I is in Crete at the time, Pyrrhus has great hopes of taking the city easily, but the citizens organise stout resistance, allowing one of Antigonus II's commanders, Aminias the Phocian, to reach the city with a force of mercenaries from Corinth. Soon after this, the Spartan king, Areus, returns from Crete with 2,000 men. These reinforcements stiffen Spartan resistance and Pyrrhus, finding that he is losing men to desertion every day, breaks off the attack and starts to plunder the country. * As they plunder the countryside, Pyrrhus and his troops move onto Argos. Entering the city with his army by stealth, Pyrrhus finds himself caught in a confused battle with the Argives (who are supported by Antigonus' forces) in the narrow city streets. During the confusion an old woman watching from a rooftop throws a roof tile at Pyrrhus which stuns him, allowing an Argive soldier to kill him. * Following his death in Argos, Pyrrhus is succeeded as king of Epirus by his son Alexander II while Antigonus II Gonatas regains his Macedonian throne which he has lost to Pyrrhus two years earlier. #### India * The Mauryan emperor, Bindusara, sends the Mauryan army to conquer the southern kingdoms. Kadamba is conquered. Births ------ Deaths ------ * Aristotimus, Greek tyrant of Elis (approximate date) * Bindusara, emperor of the Mauryan Empire (b. c. 320 BC) * Ptolemy, son of Pyrrhus of Epirus (b. 295 BC) * Pyrrhus of Epirus, king of the Molossians (from c. 297 BC), Epirus (306–301 and 297–272 BC) and Macedon (288–284 and 273–272 BC); involved in disputes in southern Italy against Rome and in Sicily (b. 318 BC)

272 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/272_BC

Year **351 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Peticus and Crispinus** (or, less frequently, **year 403 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 351 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Persian Empire * Encouraged by a failed effort at invasion of Egypt by King Artaxerxes III, Phoenicia and Cyprus revolt against Persia. #### Greece * Demosthenes tries to get the Athenians to cease depending on paid mercenaries and return to the old concept of a citizen army. He also delivers his First Philippic, warning Athenians of the folly of believing that Philip's ill health will save Athens from the Macedonians. In response, Athens' citizens vote for increased armaments. #### Roman Republic * The Etruscans are badly defeated by the Romans and abandon their attacks on the city and sue for peace. * First use of the heavy throwing spear, the *pilum*, (according to Livy) in battle against the Gauls. * Gaius Marcius Rutilus becomes the first Roman plebeian to be elected to the office of censor. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

351 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/351_BC

Year **352 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Poplicola and Rutilus** (or, less frequently, **year 402 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 352 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * After two initial efforts, Philip II of Macedon drives the Phocians south after a major victory over them in the Battle of Crocus Field. Athens and Sparta come to the assistance of the Phocians and Philip is checked at Thermopylae. Philip does not attempt to advance into central Greece with the Athenians occupying this pass. With this victory, Philip accrues great glory as the righteous avenger of Apollo, since the Phocian general Onomarchos has plundered the sacred treasury of Delphi to pay his mercenaries. Onomarchos' body is crucified, and the prisoners are drowned as ritual demanded for temple-robbers. * Philip then moves against Thrace. He makes a successful expedition into Thrace, gaining a firm ascendancy in the country, and brings away a son of Cersobleptes, the King of Thrace, as a hostage. Philip II's Thessalian victory earns him election as president (archon) of the Thessalian League. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

352 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/352_BC

Year **356 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Ambustus and Laenas** (or, less frequently, **year 398 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 356 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Persian Empire * Having blamed the defeats by Philip II in Thessaly and Chalcidice on his colleagues, Chares is left as sole Athenian commander. Chares is in need of money for his war effort, but frowns upon asking it from the Athenians so, partly compelled by his mercenaries, he enters the service of the insurgent Persian satrap Artabazus of Phrygia who rewards Chares very generously. * Artabazus of Phrygia is also supported by the Thebans, who send him 5,000 men under their general Pammenes. With the assistance of these and other allies, Artabazus defeats his Persian enemies in two great battles. * The Persian King Artaxerxes III orders all the satraps (governors) of his empire to dismiss their mercenaries. The Athenians, who have originally approved their mercenaries' collaboration with Artabazus of Phrygia, order them to leave due to their fear of Persian support for the revolting states of Chios, Rhodes, and Cos. Thebes follows suit and withdraws its mercenaries. * With King Artaxerxes III succeeding in depriving Artabazus of his Athenian and Theban allies, Artabazus is defeated by the Persian King's general, Autophradates. #### Greece * Philip II of Macedon secretly offers the city of Amphipolis back to the Athenians in exchange for the valuable port of Pydna. Despite the Athenians being willing to comply, both Pydna and Potidaea are conquered by the Macedonians (along with other Athenian strongholds in Thessaly and Chalcidice) despite being defended by Athenian forces led by general and mercenary commander, Chares, as well as generals Iphicrates and Timotheus. * With Pydna and Potidaea occupied, Philip II decides to keep Amphipolis anyway. He also takes the city of Crenides from the Odrysae and renames it Philippi. * The Phocians capture and sack Delphi in whose territory the famous temple and oracle stand. A *sacred war* is declared against them by the other members of the Great Amphictyonic League. The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus and Onomarchus, use Delphi's riches to hire a mercenary army to carry the war into Boeotia and Thessaly. * The Social War begins between the Second Athenian League, led by Athens, and its revolting allies of Chios, Rhodes, and Kos as well as the independent state Byzantium. Mausolus, the tyrant of Caria, instigates the rebellion against the Athenian control of these states. The revolting allies ravage the islands of Lemnos and Imbros which are loyal to Athens. * The Athenian generals Chares and Chabrias are given command of the Athenian fleet with the aim of defeating the rebellious cities. However, Chabrias' fleet is defeated and he is killed in its attack on the island of Chios, off the coast of Ionia. * Chares is given complete command of the Athenian fleet and withdraws to the Hellespont to move against Byzantium. The generals Timotheus, Iphicrates and his son Menestheus are sent to help him when the enemy fleet is sighted on the Hellespont. Timotheus and Iphicrates refuse to engage due to a severe gale, but Chares does engage and lose many of his ships. Timotheus and Iphicrates are accused by Chares and put on trial, however only Timotheus is condemned to pay a fine. #### Roman Republic * Gaius Marcius Rutilus is the first plebeian to be chosen as a dictator in Rome. #### China * With his reforms initiated in this year, the Chinese prime minister Shang Yang starts to transform the once marginal and frontier State of Qin to become the most dominant military force amongst the Warring States of China by the 3rd century BC. ### By topic #### Architecture * July 21 (traditional date) – The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is burned down by a madman named Herostratus, destroying one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The great temple was built by Croesus, king of Lydia, in about 550 BC and was famous not only for its great size (110 metres by 55 metres), but also for the magnificent works of art that adorned it. Births ------ * July 20/21 – Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia (d. 323 BC) * Hephaestion, Macedonian general, soldier, aristocrat, and companion of Alexander the Great (d. 324 BC) Deaths ------ * Herostratus * Philistus

356 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/356_BC

Year **270 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Clepsina and Blasio** (or, less frequently, **year 484 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 270 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Republic * Rome's subjugation of Italy is completed by the recapture of Rhegium (southern Italy) from the Mamertines and the defeat of the Brutians, the Lucanians, the Calabrians and the Samnites. The town of Rhegium is then restored by the Romans to its Greek inhabitants. #### Carthage * Carthage, already in control of Sardinia, southern Spain and Numidia, is ruled by an oligarchy of merchants under two Suffetes or chief magistrates. While Carthage's military commanders are strong, the state relies on mercenaries (including Spanish ones) for its soldiers. Births ------ * Hamilcar Barca, founder of Barcid Spain and leading Carthaginian general who will fight against Rome in Sicily and Italy, against the Libyans and the mercenary revolt in Africa, and against the Iberians and Celti-Iberians in Spain (d. 228 BC) Deaths ------ * Arsinoe II, queen to Lysimachus, the king of Thrace, and later wife of her brother, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt (b. c. 316 BC) * Epicurus, Greek philosopher, author of an ethical philosophy of simple pleasure, friendship, and retirement (b. 341 BC) * Marcus Valerius Corvus, Roman hero (b. c. 370 BC) * Manius Curius Dentatus, Roman general, conqueror of the Samnites and victor against Pyrrhus, King of Epirus * Pyrrho, Greek philosopher from Elis, credited as being the first skeptic philosopher and inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism (b. c. 360 BC) * Euclid of Alexandria, Mathematician, considered the "father of geometry", chiefly known for the Elements treatise, which established the foundations of geometry, has been estimated to die in 270 BC

270 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/270_BC

Year **273 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Licinus and Canina** (or, less frequently, **year 481 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 273 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * Impressed by Rome's defeat of Pyrrhus of Epirus, Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus sends a friendly embassy. The visit is reciprocated. #### China * General Bai Qi of the State of Qin attacks the State of Wei and State of Zhou. He captures the city of Huyang and wins three battles, defeating the army of the Zhao general Jia Yan. Births ------ * Kōgen, emperor of Japan (d. 158 BC) Deaths ------ * Appius Claudius Caecus, Roman politician and consul * Xi of Han, Chinese king of Han (Warring States Period)

273 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/273_BC

Year **275** (**CCLXXV**) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Aurelianus and Marcellinus** (or, less frequently, **year 1028 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 275 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Aurelian puts down unrest in Gaul, and defeats Germanic incursions into Gaul and Raetia (these problems had been caused by Aurelian's defeat and overthrow of the Gallic Empire). * The Goths begin to raid Thrace and Asia Minor. Aurelian begins a campaign against the Goths in Thrace, but he is then assassinated near Byzantium (Turkey) by some of his officers. Aurelian had developed a reputation for punishing corruption with severity, and his secretary Eros was under suspicion. As a result, Eros, fearing for his life, had forged a list of high-ranking officers marked for execution. In this way, the secretary tricked the officers into assassinating Aurelian, and they then fled into Asia Minor to avoid the wrath of the soldiers. Unusual for the period, the imperial field army defers to the Senate to choose a successor. * September 25 – Marcus Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed Emperor by the Senate; his half brother Marcus Annius Florianus becomes praetorian prefect. * Tacitus marches into Asia Minor to fight the Goths and track down the faction responsible for assassinating Aurelian. #### Asia * The Pallava Dynasty begins in Southern India. ### By topic #### Religion * January 4 – Eutychian succeeds Felix I as the 27th pope of Rome. Births ------ * Saint George, Roman soldier and Christian martyr (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Aurelian, Roman emperor (b. 214 or 215) * Peroz I Kushanshah, ruler of the Sasanian Kingdom * Zenobia, queen of the Palmyrene Empire (b. 240)

275

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/275

Year **279 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Publius Sulpicius Saverrio and Publius Decius Mus** (or, less frequently, **year 475 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 279 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for many years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * An army of Gauls under Brennus invade Greece. A section of the army, commanded by Bolgios, crushes a Macedonian army led by Ptolemy Keraunos, who is killed in the battle. At the narrow pass of Thermopylae, on the east coast of Central Greece, Brennus' forces suffer heavy losses while trying to break through the Greek defence comprising the Phocians and the Aetolians. Eventually Brennus finds a way around the pass but the Greeks escape by sea. Brennus pushes on to Delphi where he is defeated and forced to retreat, after which he dies of wounds sustained in the battle. His army falls back to the river Spercheios where it is routed by Thessalians and Malians. Some of the survivors settle in a part of Asia Minor that will eventually be called Galatia, while some settle in Thrace, founding a short-lived city-state named Tylis. * With the death of Ptolemy Keraunos, the previous King of Macedonia, Antipater II becomes king again. However, his new reign lasts only a few months before he is killed by his cousin Sosthenes who becomes the new King of Macedonia. * The Phocians are readmitted into the Amphictyonic League after they have joined in the defence of Delphi against the Gauls. #### Roman Republic * The Carthaginians and the Romans agree to support each other against a common foe. The Carthaginians give Rome money and ships in their fight against Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus. * Pyrrhus realizes that he cannot capture Rome and suggests peace terms to the Romans. Pyrrhus sends his chief advisor, Cineas, to Rome to negotiate a peace. Cineas demands that the Romans halt their aggression against the Greeks of southern Italy and restore the lands the Romans have taken from the Bruttii, the Apulians, and the Samnites. The Romans reject his demands, largely at the instigation of the former Roman censor, Appius Claudius Caecus. * In renewed fighting, Pyrrhus of Epirus, leading the combined Tarantine, Oscan, Samnite, and Greek forces, wins a 'Pyrrhic victory' against the Romans led by consul Publius Decius Mus at the Battle of Asculum, called such because his victory comes at a great cost to his own forces. Pyrrhus is reported to have said afterwards, "One more victory against the Romans and we shall be utterly ruined!" Disheartened, Pyrrhus retires to Tarentum and sends Cineas to make renewed peace overtures to Rome. These talks are inconclusive. #### Egypt * The aggression of Ptolemy II of Egypt continues to cause friction with Antiochus as he takes Miletus in south-western Asia Minor from him. #### The Balkans * Scordisci Celts found a city called Singidon (Roman Singidunum) which is today the Serbian city of Belgrade. #### China * General Bai Qi of the State of Qin attacks the State of Chu and captures the cities of Yan and Deng. * General Lian Po of the State of Zhou defeats an army of the State of Qi. Births ------ * Chrysippus, Greek Stoic philosopher (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Brennus, leader of the army of Gauls who in 279 BC invaded Macedonia and northern Greece * Ptolemy Keraunos, king of Macedonia from 281 to 279 BC

279 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/279_BC

Year **277** (**CCLXXVII**) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Probus and Paulinus** (or, less frequently, **year 1030 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 277 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Probus travels with his army west across the Sea of Marmara (Turkey), and through the provinces of Thrace, Moesia, and Pannonia to defeat the Goths along the lower Danube. He acquires from the troops the title of *Gothicus*. * Probus enters Rome, to have his position as Emperor ratified by the Senate. #### China * Tuoba Xilu succeeds his father Tuoba Liwei, as chieftain of the Tuoba clan. Births ------ * Justus of Beauvais, Gallo-Roman martyr (approximate date) * Sima Ai, Chinese prince of the Jin Dynasty (d. 304) * Zhang Mao, Chinese ruler of Former Liang (d. 324) Deaths ------ * Tuoba Liwei, chieftain of the Tuoba clan (China)

277

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/277

Year **452** (**CDLII**) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Herculanus and Sporacius** (or, less frequently, **year 1205 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 452 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Europe * The Huns under Attila invade Northern Italy. Emperor Valentinian III flees from Ravenna to Rome, and sends Pope Leo I to persuade him to return to the Hungarian Plain. The cities of Aquileia, Padua and Verona are destroyed by the Huns. Milan is saved because Attila is offered a huge amount of gold. Flavius Aetius (*magister militum*) is unable to raise a new army against him. * Rome is threatened by Attila but not attacked, due to a last-minute effort by Leo I. Threatened by news of reinforcements from the Eastern Roman Empire and the plague breaking out among the Huns, Attila is persuaded to withdraw. * The city of Venice is founded by fugitives from Attila's army. They flee to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon. * King Vortigern marries Hengist's daughter, Rowena, and becomes king of the Britons. The Anglo-Saxons increase their settlements in Britain (according to British legend). #### China * Nan'an Yinwang succeeds his father Tai Wu Di, after he is assassinated by the eunuch Zong Ai. Later that year, Yinwang is murdered as well, and Ai is overthrown by a group of high officials. Wen Cheng Di, age 12, becomes the new emperor of Northern Wei. Births ------ * Gundobad, king of the Burgundians (approximate date) * John the Silent, bishop and Saint (died 558) * Qi Mingdi, emperor of Southern Qi (d. 498) * Wang Jian, official of Liu Song and Southern Qi (d. 489) * Yu Zhong, official and regent of Northern Wei (d. 518) Deaths ------ * March 11 – Tai Wu Di, emperor of Northern Wei (b. 408) * Drest I, king of the Picts (approximate date) * Nan'an Yinwang, emperor of Northern Wei * King Pithiya ...-452, sixth Dravidan King of Anuradhapura [Rajarata, Sri Lanka] 450-452 * Yujiulü, consort and wife of Tuoba Huang * Zong Ai, eunuch and high official

452

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/452

Year **457** (**CDLVII**) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Constantinus and Rufus** (or, less frequently, **year 1210 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 457 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * January 27 – Emperor Marcian dies at Constantinople, possibly of foot gangrene, an infection contracted during a long religious journey. He is buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, together with his late wife Pulcheria. * February 7 – Leo I, a Thraco-Roman (or Dacian) high-ranking officer, becomes the new emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reigning for nearly 20 years. He is first to accept the Byzantine crown from the hands of the patriarch of Constantinople. * April 1 – Majorian is acclaimed emperor by the Roman army, after defeating 900 Alemanni near Lake Maggiore (Italy). * December 28 – Majorian is crowned emperor of the Western Roman Empire and recognized by Pope Leo I. His rule is accepted in Italy, Dalmatia and some territories in Northern Gaul. #### Europe * According to the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, 4,000 Britons are slain at Crecganford in battle against Hengist and his son Oisc of Kent. #### Persia * Yazdegerd II dies after a 19-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Hormizd III who seizes the Persian throne. His elder brother Peroz I rebels against him in Sistan (Iran). After months of civil war he defeats Hormizd and becomes the seventeenth Sasanian king of the Persian Empire. ### By topic #### Religion * Victorius of Aquitaine computes new tables for celebrating Easter. Births ------ * Leontia, Roman empress and wife of Anthemius (d. 479) * Medardus, bishop of Vermandois (approximate date) Deaths ------ * January 27 – Flavius Marcian, Roman emperor (b. 392) * October 28 – Ibas, bishop of Edessa (modern Turkey) * Avitus, emperor of the Western Roman Empire * Merovech, king of the Salian Franks (approximate date) * Palladius, first bishop of Ireland (approximate date) * Saint Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria * Theodoret of Cyrrhus, bishop and theologian * Valerian of Abbenza, bishop and saint (b. 377) * Yazdegerd II, king of the Persian Empire

457

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/457

Year **458 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Rutilus and Carvetus** (or, less frequently, **year 296 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 458 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * Pleistoanax succeeds Pleistarchus as king of Sparta. * Pericles continues Ephialtes' democratising activities by making the archonship a paid office and the lower class of Athenian citizens eligible to hold the office. * The Athenians start constructing the Long Walls to protect the route from the main city to their main port (Piraeus). * Aegina joins the Peloponnesian alliance, but their combined fleet is defeated by the Athenians in the Battle of Aegina. The Athenians, under the command of Leocrates, land on the island of Aegina and besiege and defeat the city. Aegina is forced to pay tribute to Athens. #### Roman Republic * The Roman general Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus is summoned by the Roman Senate to defend the city from attack by the approaching Aequi. He is named dictator of Rome for six months. He goes on to defeat the enemy in a single day at the Battle of Mount Algidus and celebrates a triumph in Rome. Sixteen days after the battle, he resigns his dictatorship and returns to his farm. ### By topic #### Literature * The Athenian playwright Aeschylus completes his trilogy *The Oresteia* (which comprise *Agamemnon*, *Choephoroi* (*The Libation Bearers*) and *The Eumenides*). Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Pleistarchus, King of Sparta since 480 BC

458 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/458_BC

Year **285 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Canina and Lepidus** (or, less frequently, **year 469 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 285 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Egypt * June 26 – Egypt's Ptolemy I Soter abdicates. He is succeeded by his youngest son by his wife Berenice, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who has been co-regent for three years. * A 110 metre tall lighthouse on the island of Pharos in Alexandria's harbour is completed and serves as a landmark for ships in the eastern Mediterranean. Built by Sostratus of Cnidus for Ptolemy II of Egypt, it is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It is a technological triumph and is the archetype of all lighthouses since. A broad spiral ramp leads to the top, where a fire burns at night. #### Seleucid Empire * Demetrius Poliorcetes is deserted by his troops and surrenders to Seleucus at Cilicia, where Seleucus keeps him a prisoner. #### China * The success of Qi has frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who has been exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Han and Yan form an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general Yue Yi comes as a devastating surprise. Simultaneously, the other allies attack from the west. Chu declares itself an ally of Qi but contents itself with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies are destroyed while the territory of Qi is reduced to the two cities of Ju and Jimo. King Min himself is later captured and executed by his own followers. Births ------ * Deaths ------ * Dicaearchus, Greek philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician and author (b. c. 350 BC) * Theophrastus, Greek philosopher, a native of Eressos in Lesbos, the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school (b. c. 370 BC)

285 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/285_BC

Year **369 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Tribunate of Fidenas, Cicurinus, Cossus, Cornelius, Cincinnatus and Ambustus** (or, less frequently, **year 385 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 369 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * After driving off the Spartan army that has threatened Mantinea, Epaminondas of Thebes moves south and crosses the Evrotas River (the frontier of Sparta), which no hostile army has breached in historical memory. The Spartans, unwilling to engage the massive Theban army in battle, remain inside their city while the Thebans and their allies ravage Laconia. * Epaminondas briefly returns to Arcadia, then marches south to Messenia, a territory which the Spartans had conquered some 200 years before. There, Epaminondas starts the rebuilding of the ancient city of Messene on Mount Ithome, with fortifications that are among the strongest in Greece. He then issues a call to Messenian exiles all over Greece to return and rebuild their homeland. The loss of Messenia is particularly damaging to the Spartans, since the territory comprises one-third of Sparta's territory and contains half of their helot population. * On returning to Thebes, Epaminondas is put on trial by his political enemies who charge that he has retained his command longer than constitutionally permitted. While this charge is considered to be true, Epaminondas persuades the Thebans that this has been necessary to protect Thebes and its allies and reduce the power of Sparta. As a result, the charges against him are dropped. * In a search for a balance of power against the now powerful Thebes, Athens responds to an appeal for help from Sparta and allies itself with its traditional enemy. * On the death of the Macedonian King Amyntas III, his eldest son Alexander II becomes king. The young king is simultaneously faced with an Illyrian invasion from the north-west and an attack from the east by the pretender of the Macedonian throne, Pausanias (who quickly captures several cities and threatens the queen mother, Eurydice). Alexander defeats his enemies with the help of the Athenian general Iphicrates, who has been sailing along the Macedonian coast on the way to recapture Amphipolis. * Alexander of Pherae becomes tyrant of Thessaly following the death of his father. Alexander's tyranny causes the Aleuadae of Larissa to seek the help of Alexander II of Macedon. Alexander II successfully gains control of Larissa and several other cities but, betraying a promise he has made, put garrisons in them. This provokes a hostile reaction from Thebes. The Theban general Pelopidas drives the Macedonians from Thessaly. * Pelopidas forces Alexander to abandon his alliance with Athens in favour of Thebes by threatening to support Alexander's brother-in-law, Ptolemy of Aloros. As part of this new alliance, Alexander is compelled to hand over hostages, including his younger brother Philip, the future conqueror of Greece. * Cleomenes II succeeds his brother Agesipolis II as Agiad king of Sparta. Births ------ * Zhuang Zhou, Chinese Taoist philosopher Deaths ------ * Amyntas III, king of Macedonia * Theaetetus, Athenian mathematician (b. c. 417 BC) * Zhou Lie Wang, king of Zhou Dynasty

369 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/369_BC

Year **414** (**CDXIV**) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Constantius and Constans** (or, less frequently, **year 1167 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 414 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * January 1 – Galla Placidia, half-sister of emperor Honorius, is married to the Visigothic king Ataulf at Narbonne. The wedding is celebrated with Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. * July 4 – Emperor Theodosius II, age 13, yields power to his older sister Aelia Pulcheria, who reigns as regent and proclaims herself empress (*Augusta*) of the Eastern Roman Empire. * Constantius III, Roman general (*magister militum*), begins a military campaign against the Visigoths in Gaul. He blockades the Gallic ports and besieges Marseille. * Priscus Attalus is proclaimed rival emperor by the Visigoths for a second time at Bordeaux, in order to impose their terms on Honorius, who has his residence in Ravenna. #### Asia * The Southern Liang, a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty, comes to an end. ### By topic #### Religion * Fa-Hien, Chinese Buddhist monk, returns from India and begins translating Buddhist works into Chinese. * Abdas, bishop of Susa, burns down a Zoroastrian temple; in retaliation, King Yazdegerd I of Persia orders the destruction of churches. Births ------ Deaths ------ * Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais (approximate date) * Yujiulü Hulü, ruler of the Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia)

414

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/414

Year **416 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Tribunate of Atratinus, Ambustus, Mugillanus and Rutilus** (or, less frequently, **year 338 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 416 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Greece * With the encouragement of Alcibiades, the Athenians take the island of Melos (which has remained neutral during the Peloponnesian War). Its inhabitants are treated with great cruelty by the Athenians, with all the men capable of bearing arms being killed, while the women and children are made slaves. * In Sicily, the Ionian city of Segesta asks for Athenian help from the Dorian city of Selinus (which is supported by the powerful Sicilian city of Syracuse). The people of Syracuse are ethnically Dorian (as are the Spartans), while the Athenians, and their allies in Sicily, are Ionian. The Athenians feel obliged to assist their ally and therefore prepare an armada to attack Sicily. ### By topic #### Drama * The tragedian Agathon wins first prize at the Lenaia. * Agathon along with Alcibiades and Socrates and Aristophanes and others attend a symposium described by Plato. Births ------ * Deaths ------ *

416 BC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/416_BC

Year **415** (**CDXV**) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Honorius and Theodosius** (or, less frequently, **year 1168 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 415 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Constantius, Roman general (*magister militum*), drives the Visigoths out of Gaul. He captures the usurper Priscus Attalus, and sends him under military escort to Ravenna. * The Visigoths invade the Iberian Peninsula and begin to conquer territory taken previously by the Vandals. King Ataulf and his pregnant wife Galla Placidia leave Gallia Narbonensis; they relocate at Barcelona. Their infant son, Theodosius, dies in infancy, eliminating an opportunity for a Roman-Visigothic line. Ataulf is assassinated in the palace while taking a bath. Sigeric succeeds him, but after a reign of seven days he is also murdered. * Autumn – Wallia, brother of Ataulf, becomes king of the Visigoths. He accepts a peace treaty with emperor Honorius, in return for a supply of 600,000 measures of grain. After the negotiations he sends Placidia to Rome with hostages. #### Asia * March 18 – The Daysan River floods Edessa (Mesopotamia). ### By topic #### Religion * Hypatia of Alexandria, Neoplatonist philosopher, is murdered by a Christian mob of Nitrian monks at the church (former temple conceived by Cleopatra VII) called Caesareum. * Having driven out the Jews, Alexandria's new patriarch, Cyril, has instigated the mob after taking offense at Hypatia's scientific rationalism (approximate date). * John Cassian, Christian theologian, settles at a monastery in Marseille (Gaul); he organizes monastic communities after an eastern model. * The Eustathian schism in Antioch is healed (approximate date). Births ------ * Euric, king of the Visigoths (d. 484) * Tonantius Ferreolus, prefect of Gaul (approximate date) Deaths ------ * Athaulf, king of the Visigoths * Chandragupta II, emperor of the Gupta Empire (India) * Hypatia of Alexandria, female Neoplatonist philosopher * Sigeric, king of the Visigoths * Thermantia, Roman empress * Tufa Rutan, prince of the Southern Liang (b. 365)

415

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/415

Year **460** (**CDLX**) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Magnus and Apollonius** (or, less frequently, **year 1213 *Ab urbe condita***). The denomination 460 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events ------ ### By place #### Roman Empire * Emperor Majorian gathers an expeditionary force (Alans and other barbarians) in Liguria, and enters Aquitaine after a long march, where he visits King Theodoric II at Toulouse. * Majorian invades Hispania; his generals Nepotianus and Sunieric lead a Visigoth army into Gallaecia. The Suebi are defeated and Lusitania (modern Portugal) is conquered. * King Genseric, fearing a Roman invasion, tries to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who refuses. The Vandals devastate Mauretania and Moorish warriors poison the wells. * Majorian assembles a large fleet in Nova Carthago (Cartagena) in preparation for an invasion of the Vandal Kingdom in Africa. However, King Genseric organizes an attack on the fleet, using individuals sympathetic to the Vandals to conduct the raid. The fleet is destroyed and the expedition is abandoned. * Emperor Leo I founds the Excubitors (imperial guard) at Constantinople; this elite tagmatic unit (300 men) is recruited from among the warlike Isaurians (approximate date). #### Europe * March 27 (night) – Swabians invade the Gallic city of Lugo. The governor is killed. #### Asia * The Hepthalites (White Huns) conquer the remnants of the Kushan Empire and enter India. * A famine that will last for several years begins in the Persian Empire (approximate date). ### By topic #### Art * The remodeling of the dome of Baptistry of Neon at Ravenna (Italy) is finished. * The Ajanta Caves (India) are completed (cut into the volcanic rock and elaborately painted). * The seated Buddha in the Yungang Grottoes, Datong (Shanxi), is made (approximate date). #### Religion * The Coptic Orthodox Church (Egypt) splits from the Chalcedonian Orthodox Church of Alexandria. * Gennadius I, patriarch of Constantinople, banishes Timothy II, patriarch of Alexandria. Births ------ * Budic II, king of Brittany (approximate date) * Hilderic, king of the Vandals and Alans (approximate date) * Romulus Augustulus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire (approximate date) Deaths ------ * October 20 – Aelia Eudocia, Roman empress and wife of Theodosius II * Ardaric, king of the Gepids (approximate date) * Juqu Anzhou, prince of the Chinese Xiongnu states Northern Liang

460

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/460